說疑

The highest form of governance does not merely mean that rewards and punishments are appropriate. Rewarding the meritless and punishing the innocent is not what is meant by discernment. Rewarding merit and punishing crime without missing the right person -- this merely responds to what people have already done; it does not generate merit or prevent transgressions. Therefore, in the methods of prohibiting treachery, the highest level prohibits the intention, the next level prohibits the speech, and the lowest level prohibits the deed. Today everyone says: 'To honor the ruler and secure the state requires benevolence, righteousness, and wisdom.' But they do not know that those who demean the ruler and endanger the state also invariably use benevolence, righteousness, and wisdom as their tools. Therefore the ruler who possesses the Way distances himself from benevolence and righteousness, discards wisdom, and brings people into submission through the law. Thus his reputation is widespread and his name inspires awe; the people are well governed and the state is secure -- because he knows the method of employing the people. Techniques are what the ruler wields; the law is what officials take as their guide. To have palace attendants hear the Way daily outside the palace gates, and everyone within the borders see the law daily -- this is not the difficult part.

In antiquity, the Youhu clan had Shidu, the Huandou clan had Gunan, the Sanmiao had Chengju, Jie had Houchi, Zhou had Chong Houhu, and Jin had Youshi. These six men were ministers who destroyed states. They made right sound like wrong and wrong sound like right. Inwardly treacherous and malicious, outwardly they displayed minor proprieties to demonstrate their goodness. They invoked the precedents of antiquity to undermine worthy undertakings. They were skilled at manipulating their rulers, concentrating on subtle details, and creating disorder through what the ruler himself loved. These are the kind of attendants and intimates who surround the ruler. Among rulers of past ages, some obtained the right people and their persons were secure and their states preserved; others obtained the wrong people and their persons were endangered and their states destroyed. The label 'obtaining people' was the same, but the difference in benefit and harm was thousandfold. Therefore the ruler's intimates must be chosen with the utmost care. If the ruler truly understands what his ministers are saying, then distinguishing the worthy from the unworthy is as easy as telling black from white.

Consider Xu You, Xu Ya, Jin Bo Yang, Qin Dian Jie, Wei Qiao Ru, Hu Buji, Zhong Ming, Dong Bushi, Bian Sui, Wu Guang, Bo Yi, and Shu Qi. These twelve men all saw profit above without joy and faced danger below without fear. Some were offered All-Under-Heaven and declined it. At any hint of disgrace, they refused even to eat grain for sustenance. Those who see profit without joy cannot be motivated even by generous rewards from above. Those who face danger without fear cannot be intimidated even by severe punishments from above. These are what we call 'ungovernable people.' These twelve either died in hiding in caves, withered to death among trees, starved in mountain valleys, or drowned themselves in springs. Since even the sage-kings of antiquity could not make them serve, what use would they be in the present age?

Consider Guan Longpang, Prince Bi Gan, Ji Liang of Sui, Xie Ye of Chen, Shen Xu of Chu, and Wu Zixu of Wu. These six men all fought fiercely and remonstrated forcefully to prevail over their rulers. When their words were heeded and their plans enacted, they stood in a position like teacher to pupil. When a single word was not heeded or a single plan not enacted, they assailed their ruler with language, staked their very lives on it, and would not shrink from death, destruction of their families, severed heads and trunks, or dismembered limbs. Such ministers as these -- even the sage-kings of antiquity could not endure them. What use would they be in the present age?

Consider Tian Heng of Qi, Zihan of Song, Ji Sun Yiru of Lu, Qiao Ru of Jin, Zi Nan Jin of Wei, Grand Steward Xin of Zheng, Bai Gong of Chu, Shan Tu of Zhou, and Zizhi of Yan. These nine men, as ministers, all formed factions and conspired in cliques to serve their rulers. They concealed the righteous path and pursued private and crooked ends. Above, they pressed upon the ruler; below, they disrupted governance. They drew upon foreign powers to undermine the interior and cultivated those below to scheme against those above -- they did not shrink from any of this. Such ministers as these -- only sage-kings and wise rulers can prevent them. How could the befuddled and chaotic rulers even perceive them?

Consider Hou Ji, Gao Yao, Yi Yin, the Duke of Zhou, Grand Duke Wang, Guan Zhong, Xi Peng, Baili Xi, Jian Shu, Jiu Fan, Zhao Xiang, Fan Li, Grand Officer Zhong, Feng Tong, and Hua Deng. These fifteen men, as ministers, all rose early and retired late, humbled themselves and lowered their persons, concentrated their minds and laid bare their intentions. They clarified punishments and penalties, managed offices and duties to serve their rulers. They offered wise counsel and promoted the proper Way and the law, yet dared not boast of their wisdom. They achieved great works and established undertakings, yet dared not vaunt their labors. They did not shrink from ruining their own families to benefit the state, or sacrificing their lives to secure the ruler. They regarded their ruler as lofty as heaven and as exalted as Mount Tai, while regarding themselves as low as a ravine or the Wei River's valley. Their rulers gained illustrious names and widespread renown throughout the state, while they themselves did not shrink from accepting the lowliness of ravines and valleys. Such ministers as these -- even under befuddled and chaotic rulers they could still achieve merit. How much more so under wise and discerning rulers! These are called the ministers who build hegemony and kingship.

Consider Zhou Huazhi, Prince Sun Shen of Zheng, Gongsun Ning of Chen, Yi Xingfu, Yu Yin Shenhai of Chu, the Junior Tutor of Sui, Zhong Gan of Yue, Prince Sun of Wu, Yang Chengxie of Jin, Shu Diao of Qi, and Yi Ya. These twelve men, as ministers, all pursued petty advantage while forgetting law and righteousness. When they advanced, they concealed the worthy and capable to keep their rulers in darkness. When they withdrew, they disrupted the hundred officials and created calamities. They all supported their rulers in fulfilling their desires, and so long as they could win a single word of approval from the ruler, they did not shrink from destroying the state and killing the people.

With ministers like these, even sage-kings would fear being subverted -- let alone befuddled and chaotic rulers. How could they escape loss? Every ruler who had such ministers died and his state was destroyed, becoming a laughingstock for All-Under-Heaven. Duke Wei of Zhou was killed and his state split in two. Zi Yang of Zheng was killed and his state split in three. Duke Ling of Chen was killed by Xia Zhengshu. King Ling of Chu died at Ganqi. Sui was destroyed by Chu. Wu was annexed by Yue. Zhibo was annihilated below Jinyang. Duke Huan of Qi died and his body lay unburied for seven days. Therefore it is said: sycophantic ministers -- only sage-kings can identify them, while chaotic rulers draw close to them, and so they come to the end of dying and losing their states.

Sage-kings and wise rulers are different. In internal appointments they do not avoid relatives; in external appointments they do not avoid enemies. Where there is merit, they promote accordingly; where there is fault, they punish accordingly. Thus the worthy advance and the treacherous are all removed, and with a single action they can command the submission of the feudal lords.

The records say: Yao had Dan Zhu, Shun had Shang Jun, Qi had Wuguan, the Shang had Tai Jia, and King Wu had the Dukes of Guan and Cai. What these five kings punished were all their own kin -- fathers, brothers, sons, and brothers. Why did they execute, destroy, and ruin the families of their own flesh and blood? Because they harmed the state, injured the people, and undermined the law.

Consider those they promoted: some were found in mountain forests, marshes, or caves; some were in prisons, bound in chains and ropes; some were occupied with butchering, cooking, cutting grass, herding, or feeding cattle. Yet the wise ruler was not ashamed of their lowly origins. Judging by their abilities that they could clarify the law, benefit the state, and serve the people, he promoted them, and they gained security and honored names.

Chaotic rulers are otherwise. Not understanding their ministers' intentions and conduct, they entrust them with the state. At the least, their reputation suffers and their territory is diminished; at worst, the state is destroyed and they themselves die. This comes from not understanding how to employ ministers.

A ruler who has no methods for measuring his ministers must rely on the mouths of the crowd to judge them. Whomever the crowd praises, he follows by being pleased with; whomever the crowd condemns, he follows by despising. Therefore ministers ruin their own families and spend their wealth, internally constructing factions and externally connecting with neighborhood clans to build reputations. They secretly form alliances to solidify bonds and promise one another empty titles and salaries for mutual encouragement. They say: 'Those who join us, we will benefit; those who do not join us, we will harm.' The crowd, greedy for the benefits and coerced by the threats -- 'if he is pleased, he can benefit me; if he is angered, he can harm me' -- rallies to him. The people support him, his praise fills the state, and word reaches the ruler. The ruler cannot perceive the truth and takes him for a worthy man.

Furthermore, such a minister dispatches cunning agents abroad, pretending to be honored envoys of foreign lords, furnished with carriages and horses, authenticated with jade tokens and tallies, armed with impressive rhetoric, and supplied with silk and valuables. They have the feudal lords lavish praise on their patron to his ruler, subtly furthering private interests while speaking in public terms. Those who serve as envoys are rulers of other states; those who speak for him are the ruler's own intimates. The ruler is delighted by their words and impressed by their eloquence, concluding that this minister must be the worthiest scholar in All-Under-Heaven. Inside and out, among his intimates, the suggestion is uniform and the language identical. For the great, he does not hesitate to humble himself from high position to defer to them; for the lesser, he offers high ranks and heavy salaries to win them. As the treacherous minister's rank and salary grow heavier and his faction swells, and he harbors treacherous designs, his sycophants go further and tell him: 'Those whom antiquity called sage-kings and wise rulers did not simply follow the order of eldest and youngest or the sequence of succession -- they built factions, assembled neighborhood clans, pressed upon the ruler, assassinated the sovereign, and seized the profit for themselves.'

He asks: 'How do we know this?' They reply: 'Shun pressured Yao, Yu pressured Shun, Tang banished Jie, King Wu attacked Zhou. These four kings were ministers who murdered their rulers, yet All-Under-Heaven praises them. Examine the four kings' motives: they were the desire to seize what belongs to others. Assess their conduct: it was the violence of rebellious armies. Yet these four kings expanded their own power, and All-Under-Heaven called it great; they made their own names illustrious, and All-Under-Heaven called it wise. Their authority was sufficient to dominate All-Under-Heaven, and their profit sufficient to overshadow the age -- so All-Under-Heaven followed them.' They further say: 'From what we hear in our own time: Tian Chengzi seized Qi, Minister Zihan seized Song, Grand Steward Xin seized Zheng, the Shan clan seized Zhou, Yi Ya seized Wei, and the three lords of Han, Wei, and Zhao partitioned Jin. These six were ministers who murdered their rulers.'

The treacherous minister hears this, pricks up his ears, and takes it as truth. Therefore he internally constructs factions, externally marshals neighborhood clans, watches for the moment, and with a single stroke seizes the state. Those who internally use factions to coerce and murder their rulers, externally use the support of feudal lords to proudly overturn their state, conceal the proper succession, maintain private interests, obstruct the ruler above, and disrupt governance below -- they are too numerous to count. Why is this? Because the ruler was not discerning in choosing ministers.

The records say: 'Since the time of King Xuan of Zhou, dozens of states have perished, and ministers who murdered their rulers and seized their states have been numerous.' The threats arising from within and those arising from without are roughly equal. Those who can at least exhaust their people's strength before destroying their states and dying are still considered competent rulers. But those who surrender their persons, reverse the law, change positions, preserve the usurper's faction, and hand over the state -- this is the worst affliction of all.

If the ruler truly understands what his ministers are saying, then even if he spends his days hunting with bow and arrow, riding at full gallop, striking bells, and watching dancing girls, the state will still survive. If he does not understand what his ministers are saying, then even if he is frugal and diligent, wears coarse cloth and eats poor food, the state will still perish.

Duke Jing of Zhao, an earlier lord of Zhao, did not cultivate virtue but loved to indulge his desires, seeking whatever pleased his body, eyes, and ears. In winter he hunted with crossbow, in summer he idled on pleasure boats. He held all-night banquets, went days without setting down his wine cup, and had those who could not drink any more forcibly poured wine down their throats through tubes. Those who advanced and retreated without propriety or responded without respect were beheaded on the spot. His living and eating were thus utterly without restraint; his application of punishments and executions was thus completely without measure. Yet Duke Jing ruled his state for decades. His army was never defeated by enemy states, his territory was never diminished by neighbors, there was no disorder among rulers, ministers, and officials within, and no threats from feudal lords without -- because he understood how to appoint ministers.

King Kuai of Yan was a descendant of the Duke of Shao. His territory spanned thousands of li with hundreds of thousands of halberd-bearing soldiers. He did not enjoy the pleasures of women and children, did not listen to the music of bells and chimes, built no pools, terraces, or pavilions within, did not hunt or chase game without, and personally took up plow and hoe to work the fields. King Kuai's mortification of his own body out of concern for the people was extreme indeed. Even the sage-kings and wise rulers of antiquity did not toil and worry more than this. Yet King Kuai died, his state was destroyed, and it was seized by Zizhi -- and All-Under-Heaven laughed at him. Why? Because he did not understand how to appoint ministers.

Therefore it is said: ministers have five forms of treachery, yet the ruler does not perceive them. Among those who serve as rulers, there are ministers who lavishly spend wealth and bribes to acquire fame; who are devoted to bestowing rewards and gifts to win over the people; who are devoted to building factions, parading their wisdom, and honoring scholars to exercise unchecked power; who are devoted to pardoning crimes and releasing prisoners to build their own prestige; and who are devoted to flattering those below, twisting straight and crooked, making bizarre speeches, wearing magnificent attire, and using grandiose titles to dazzle the people's eyes and ears. These five are what the wise ruler regards with suspicion and the sage-king prohibits. Remove these five, and the clamorous and deceitful will not dare stand facing north to speak. Those whose refined words are many but whose actual deeds are few and not in accordance with the law will not dare fabricate feelings in their persuasions.

Thus all ministers, in repose, cultivate themselves; in action, they exert their strength. Without the ruler's command, they dare not presume to make rash statements or fabricate affairs. This is how the sage-king governs his ministers.

The sage-king and wise ruler does not wait for suspicious matters to spy upon his ministers. Those who encounter suspicious matters and do not rebel are rare in All-Under-Heaven. Therefore it is said: when a concubine's son rivals the legitimate heir, when a secondary wife rivals the primary wife, when a court minister rivals the chancellor, when a minister's favorite rivals the ruler -- these four are what endanger the state. Therefore it is said: when an inner favorite equals the queen, when an outer favorite shares in governance, when a branch son is paired with the legitimate heir, and when a great minister rivals the ruler -- this is the path to chaos. The Records of Zhou say: 'Do not honor a concubine and demean a wife; do not displace the legitimate son and honor a minor branch; do not honor a favored minister and make him equal to the chief minister; do not honor a great minister to rival the ruler.' When these four usurpations are broken, the ruler above will have no misgivings and those below will cause no trouble. When these four usurpations are not broken, ruin of one's person and destruction of one's state will follow.