六反

Those who fear death and avoid difficulty are the surrendering and fleeing people, yet the world honors them as 'scholars who value life.' Those who study the Way and establish methods outside the law are people who depart from the law, yet the world honors them as 'scholars of culture and learning.' Those who wander idly and live sumptuously are people who seize food without producing it, yet the world honors them as 'men of ability.' Those who twist words and chase after knowledge are deceitful and fraudulent people, yet the world honors them as 'men of eloquence and intelligence.' Those who carry swords and commit assault and murder are violent and reckless people, yet the world honors them as 'men of purity and courage.' Those who shelter criminals and conceal treachery are people who deserve death, yet the world honors them as 'men of loyalty and honor.' These six types are what the world praises.

Those who rush into danger and die for integrity are people of steadfast loyalty, yet the world belittles them as 'people who miscalculated.' Those of few pretensions who obey commands are law-abiding people, yet the world belittles them as 'simple and crude people.' Those who labor hard for their food are people who produce wealth, yet the world belittles them as 'people of little ability.' Those who are upright, substantial, pure, and sincere are the most upright people, yet the world belittles them as 'foolish and simple people.' Those who take commands seriously and fear transgression are people who respect their superiors, yet the world belittles them as 'timid and intimidated people.' Those who thwart criminals and check treachery are people who serve the ruler well, yet the world belittles them as 'sycophantic and slanderous people.' These six types are what the world condemns.

Six types of treacherous, deceitful, and useless people, and the world praises them thus. Six types of people useful for farming and warfare, and the world condemns them thus -- this is what is called 'the six reversals.' Private individuals follow their private interests and praise these types; rulers of the age heed empty reputation and honor them. Where honor exists, profit surely follows. The common people follow their private resentments and denounce the latter types; rulers of the age, blocked by convention, despise them. Where contempt exists, harm surely follows. When fame and reward go to people who deserve punishment for private wrongdoing, and censure and harm go to those who deserve reward for public good -- to seek the wealth and strength of the state under these conditions is impossible.

An ancient proverb says: 'Governing is like washing one's hair -- though some hair is lost, one must do it.' To begrudge the cost of lost hair and forget the benefit of growing hair is to not understand trade-offs. Lancing a boil is painful; drinking medicine is bitter. But to refuse to lance the boil or drink the medicine because of the pain and bitterness means the body will not survive and the illness will not be cured.

Now, the relationship between ruler and subject lacks the affection of father and child. To attempt to control those below through the practice of righteousness when such affection does not exist will inevitably produce rifts. Moreover, even parents treat their children calculatingly: when a son is born, they congratulate each other; when a daughter is born, they kill her. Both come from the parents' bosom equally, yet the son is congratulated and the daughter killed -- because they calculate future utility and reckon long-term benefit. If even parents relate to their children with a calculating mind, how much more so when there is no bond of parent and child?

Now the scholars who advise the ruler all tell him to abandon the pursuit of profit and follow the way of mutual love. They ask the ruler to exceed even parental affection -- this shows ignorance of the nature of kindness, and is fraudulent and deceptive. Therefore the enlightened ruler does not accept it.

The sage's governance carefully examines laws and prohibitions. When laws and prohibitions are clear and manifest, officials follow the law. When rewards and punishments are certain and impartial, the people exert themselves. When offices are well governed, the state is rich. When the state is rich, the army is strong, and the enterprise of hegemony and kingship is achieved. Hegemony and kingship are the ruler's greatest profit. When the ruler grasps this greatest profit as his basis for governance, his appointments match ability and his rewards and punishments are free of favoritism. When scholars and people see this clearly and devote their full strength even unto death, then merit can be established and rank and salary attained. Rank and salary attained, the enterprise of wealth and honor is complete. Wealth and honor are the minister's greatest profit. When the minister grasps this greatest profit as his basis for service, his conduct braves danger unto death and his strength is exhausted without resentment.

This is called: the ruler is not benevolent, and the minister is not loyal -- yet hegemony and kingship cannot be achieved otherwise.

When treachery will certainly be detected, people take precautions; when it will certainly be punished, they desist. When it will not be detected, they act freely; when it will not be punished, they carry on. Place cheap goods in a dark, hidden place, and even Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu would be suspected of taking them. Hang a hundred pieces of gold in the marketplace, and even the greatest thief would not take them. Where detection is uncertain, even Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu are suspects in the dark; where detection is certain, even the greatest thief will not take gold hung in public.

Therefore the enlightened ruler governs the state by multiplying the watchguards and increasing the severity of punishments, causing the people to be restrained by legal prohibitions rather than stopped by personal integrity. A mother loves her child twice as much as a father, yet a father's commands are obeyed by the child ten times more than a mother's. Officials have no love for the people, yet their commands are obeyed ten thousand times more than a father's. A mother accumulates love yet her commands go unfulfilled; officials exercise severity and the people obey. The policy choice between severity and love can thus be settled.

Moreover, what parents seek from their children is: in their actions, that they pursue safety and profit; in their conduct, that they stay far from crime. What the ruler seeks from the people is: in difficulty, their willingness to die; in peace, their full strength. Parents, through deep love, guide their children toward safety and profit -- yet the children do not obey. The ruler, through loveless self-interest, demands the people's willingness to die and devote their full strength -- yet his commands are obeyed. The enlightened ruler understands this. Therefore he does not cultivate a heart of kindness and love but increases the force of authority and severity. Where a mother's deep love prevails, children often go astray -- because love was indulged. Where a father's sparing love is enforced through the rod, children often turn out well -- because severity was applied.

When a household manages its property, family members endure hunger and cold together and push each other through toil and hardship. Even when military conscription or famine strikes, such a family will still eat well and dress warmly. The household whose members indulge each other with food and clothing and treat each other to leisure and pleasure will, when the skies bring famine and the years bring crop failure, end up selling wives and children. Therefore the way of the law brings pain at first but lasting benefit; the way of benevolence brings stolen pleasures followed by ruin. The sage weighs the lighter against the heavier and chooses the greater benefit. Therefore he employs the mutual endurance of the law and abandons the mutual pity of the benevolent.

The scholars all say 'lighten the punishments' -- this is the method of chaos and ruin. The purpose of making rewards and punishments certain is to motivate and prohibit. When rewards are generous, what is desired is obtained quickly. When punishments are severe, what is detested is prohibited urgently. Those who desire profit must detest harm -- harm is the opposite of profit. When something opposes what one desires, how can one not detest it? Those who desire order must detest chaos -- chaos is the opposite of order. Therefore those who strongly desire order make their rewards generous, and those who strongly detest chaos make their punishments severe. Those who advocate light punishments neither detest chaos strongly nor desire order strongly. This is not merely a lack of technique -- it is also a lack of resolve. The measure that distinguishes the worthy from the unworthy, the foolish from the wise, lies in the weight of rewards and punishments.

Moreover, heavy punishments are not for the criminals. The enlightened ruler's law is a compass line. Executing a robber is not governing the one executed -- governing the one executed would be governing a dead man. Punishing a thief is not governing the one punished -- governing the one punished would be governing a convict laborer. Therefore it is said: making the punishment for one act of treachery severe stops all wickedness within the borders. This is governance. Those who receive heavy punishment are the bandits and thieves; those who tremble in fear are the good citizens. Why should those who desire order hesitate at the name of heavy punishment? Generous rewards, too, do not merely reward the meritorious -- they motivate the entire state. Those who receive rewards enjoy the profit; those not yet rewarded aspire to the work. Repaying one person's merit motivates everyone within the borders. Why should those who desire order hesitate at generous rewards?

Today those who do not understand governance all say: 'Heavy punishments harm the people. Light punishments can stop treachery -- why insist on severity?' This shows a failure to understand governance. What can be stopped by heavy punishment cannot necessarily be stopped by light punishment, but what can be stopped by light punishment can certainly be stopped by heavy punishment. Therefore when the ruler establishes heavy punishments, all treachery ceases. When all treachery ceases, how does this harm the people?

What is meant by heavy punishment is: the profit the criminal gains is small, while the penalty the ruler imposes is great. The people will not incur great punishment for small profit, so treachery necessarily stops. What is meant by light punishment is: the profit the criminal gains is great, while the penalty the ruler imposes is small. The people covet the profit and scorn the punishment, so treachery does not stop.

Therefore the ancient sages had a proverb: 'One does not stumble on a mountain but stumbles on an anthill.' The mountain is large, so people approach it carefully. The anthill is small, so people treat it lightly. Now if punishments are light, the people will certainly treat them lightly. If they transgress and are not executed, this is driving the state to ruin and abandoning it. If they transgress and are executed, this is setting traps for the people. Therefore light punishments are the people's anthill.

Thus light punishments as a policy for the people either bring the state to chaos or set traps for the people -- this is what can truly be called 'harming the people'!

Today's scholars all recite the laudatory phrases of books and documents without examining the actual conditions of the present age. They say: 'When the ruler does not love the people and taxation is always heavy, then resources are insufficient and those below fear those above, so All-Under-Heaven falls into great chaos.' They conclude that making resources sufficient and adding love, even with light punishments, is enough to govern. This is wrong.

The reason people accept heavy rewards and punishments is precisely because their basic needs are already met. Yet even with sufficient resources and abundant love, if punishments are light, there will still be chaos. Consider a family that loves its children and has ample wealth. With ample wealth, spending is careless; careless spending leads to extravagance. With deep love, there is no heart for discipline; without discipline, children become arrogant and willful. Extravagance impoverishes the family; arrogance and willfulness produce violent behavior. Though wealth was sufficient and love was abundant, the harm of light indulgence is evident.

It is human nature that when resources are sufficient, people slacken their effort; when authority is weak, people indulge in wrongdoing. One who has sufficient resources yet still works hard is a Shen Nong. One who lives under weak authority yet still cultivates his conduct is a Zeng Shen or Shi Qiu. That the common people do not measure up to Shen Nong, Zeng Shen, or Shi Qiu is obvious. Laozi said: 'He who knows when he has enough will not be disgraced; he who knows when to stop will not be endangered.' But the one who, for fear of disgrace and danger, does not seek beyond sufficiency -- that is Laozi himself. To assume that making the people sufficient is enough for governance is to assume that all people are like Laozi.

Jie held the exalted position of Son of Heaven yet was not satisfied with his honor; he possessed all within the four seas yet was not satisfied with his treasures. Even if a ruler makes his people sufficient, he cannot make them sufficient in being rulers themselves. And Jie was not necessarily satisfied even as Son of Heaven -- so even with sufficient people, how can this lead to governance?

Therefore the enlightened ruler governs by adapting to the circumstances of the time to gather resources, adjusting taxes to equalize rich and poor, making rank and salary generous to fully employ the worthy and capable, and making punishments severe to prohibit treachery and wickedness. He causes the people to gain wealth through effort, attain honor through service, suffer punishment through transgression, and receive rewards through merit -- without thinking of charitable gifts. This is the governance of emperors and kings.

When everyone is asleep, the blind go undetected. When everyone is silent, the mute go undetected. But rouse them and make them see, question them and make them answer -- and the blind and mute are exposed. If one does not test their words, those without technique go undetected. If one does not assign them tasks, the incompetent go undetected. Test their words and demand accuracy; assign them tasks and demand results -- and those without technique and the incompetent are exposed.

If you want to find a strong man and listen to people's self-descriptions, you cannot distinguish a mediocrity from Wu Huo. But hand them a tripod cauldron, and the weak and the strong are immediately revealed. Therefore official duties are the tripod cauldron of capable men: assign tasks, and the foolish and wise are distinguished.

Those without technique benefit from not being tested. The incompetent benefit from not being assigned tasks. Those who are not tested yet embellish themselves as eloquent; those who are not assigned tasks yet adorn themselves as lofty. Rulers of the age, dazzled by their eloquence and swayed by their loftiness, honor and exalt them. This is like declaring someone has keen eyesight without making them see, or declaring someone eloquent without making them answer -- in which case the blind and mute would never be exposed.

The enlightened ruler, when he hears words, always demands practical results; when he observes conduct, always demands achievements. In that case, empty and stale learning is no longer discussed, and arrogant and fraudulent conduct is no longer adorned.