八經

In governing All-Under-Heaven, one must work according to human nature. Human nature includes likes and dislikes; therefore rewards and punishments can be employed. When rewards and punishments can be employed, prohibitions and ordinances can be established, and the instruments of governance are complete.

The ruler grasps the handles and occupies the position of power; therefore his orders are carried out and his prohibitions are enforced. The handles are the controls over life and death; positional advantage is the resource for overcoming the multitude. If appointments and dismissals follow no standard, authority is cheapened. If rewards and punishments are shared with those below, the ruler's awe is divided.

Therefore the enlightened ruler does not listen out of personal affection, nor does he calculate based on flattering persuasion. If he listens to words without cross-checking, power will be divided among the treacherous. If he does not apply his intelligence and strength, the ruler will be outmaneuvered by his ministers.

The enlightened ruler's exercise of institutional control is like Heaven: impartial. His employment of men is like spirits: inscrutable. Like Heaven, he cannot be faulted; like spirits, he cannot be confounded. When positional advantage is exercised and instruction is strict, opposition ceases and dissent does not arise. Praise and blame proceed in a single track without debate.

To reward the worthy and punish the violent is the highest praise of goodness. To reward the violent and punish the worthy is the highest promotion of evil -- this is called rewarding the same and punishing what differs. Rewards should be generous, so the people will desire them. Praise should be fine, so the people will glory in it. Punishments should be heavy, so the people will fear them. Condemnation should be severe, so the people will be ashamed of it. Then apply the law uniformly, prohibit punishment through private channels, and do not interfere with the assessment of merit and fault. When rewards and punishments are certainly known, that knowledge is the completion of the Way.

One man's strength cannot match the multitude; one man's intelligence cannot exhaust all things. Rather than employ one man, it is better to employ a whole state -- thus individual intelligence is outmatched and the collective prevails. If the ruler guesses correctly, he labors privately to no purpose; if he guesses wrong, he bears the blame. The inferior ruler exhausts his own abilities; the middling ruler exhausts others' strength; the superior ruler exhausts others' intelligence.

Therefore when affairs arise, he binds men to their proposals, listens impartially, and convenes them publicly. If listening is not impartial, later decisions will contradict earlier ones, and the wise and foolish cannot be distinguished. If he does not convene them publicly, he will hesitate without deciding, and unresolved affairs will accumulate. If he takes a single course for himself, he avoids the burden of falling into the pit.

He has them present their proposals; once the proposals are fixed, he holds them to account. Thus when proposals are submitted, they must be recorded in the registers. Those who are bound to their proposals are verified when affairs unfold; those who are bound to their abilities are evaluated when results reveal the success or failure of their plans. Success and failure leave evidence; rewards and punishments follow accordingly. When affairs succeed, the ruler collects the credit; when plans fail, the ministers bear the blame.

One who rules men does not even personally verify tallies -- how much less should he exert himself physically? He does not personally investigate intelligence -- how much less should he operate in uncertainty? Therefore in employing men, he does not select those who agree with him; if they agree, the ruler should be suspicious. When men check one another in their employment, the ruler becomes divine and those below give their utmost. When those below fully exhaust themselves for those below them, ministers no longer depend on the ruler for advancement -- and the Way of the ruler is complete.

He who understands that minister and ruler have divergent interests will become king. He who considers their interests the same will be coerced. He who shares power with ministers will be killed. Therefore the enlightened ruler carefully distinguishes public from private and examines the terrain of benefit and harm, so that treachery finds no opening.

Disorder arises from six sources: the ruler's mother, the consorts, the heir and sons, brothers, great ministers, and prominent worthies. If officials are properly appointed and ministers held accountable, the ruler's mother will not overstep. If ritual distinctions of rank are maintained, the consorts will not harbor ambitions. If the division of power allows no duality, legitimate and illegitimate sons will not contend. If the registers of authority are not lost, brothers will not encroach. If access to the ruler is not monopolized through a single gate, great ministers will not build factions. If prohibitions and rewards are reliably enforced, prominent worthies will not cause disorder.

Ministers have two avenues of leverage: external and internal. The external is fear; the internal is love. When what is feared can be obtained and what is loved has its words heeded -- these are what disloyal ministers exploit. If foreign-placed officials are controlled by executing their intimates and confiscating their treasuries, then the external avenue is closed. If ranks and salaries follow merit and those who make requests are all punished, then the internal avenue is closed. With the external avenue closed and the internal avenue closed, treachery is sealed off.

When an official advances through successive ranks to reach a position of great responsibility, that is intelligence. To control those who have reached high positions and great responsibility, use three restraints: hostages, stabilization, and security. His relatives and wife and children serve as hostages. Generous and reliable salaries serve as stabilization. Cross-checking and accountability serve as security. The worthy are restrained by hostages; the greedy are transformed by stabilization; the treacherous are exhausted by security.

If one tolerates without controlling, the subordinate will usurp the superior. If small offenses are not removed, great punishments will follow. When name and reality match, proceed directly. If keeping someone alive harms affairs but killing him would damage the ruler's reputation, then use food and drink. If not, hand him over to his enemies. This is called removing hidden traitors.

Deception is called subterfuge; subterfuge is called exchange. Reward verified achievements and punish visible crimes, and subterfuge will cease. When right and wrong are not leaked and proposals and remonstrances are not freely communicated, then exchange will not be employed.

When the father, brothers, and worthy men of a family are scattered abroad, this is called 'roaming calamity' -- the danger is that neighboring enemies gain resources. When men who have been humiliated are placed in the ruler's intimate circle, this is called 'familiar poison' -- the danger is that rage and resentful hearts arise. When anger is stored and crimes held but not acted upon, this is called 'accumulated disorder' -- the danger is that reckless and presumptuous men arise. When two great ministers hold the balance equally without either prevailing, this is called 'coiled calamity' -- the danger is that powerful houses will seize and kill. When the ruler is casual and does not cultivate an air of divine mystery, this is called 'flicked authority' -- the danger is that poison and assassination will arise.

These five dangers, if the ruler does not perceive them, lead to coercion and assassination. When matters of appointment and dismissal originate from within, there is order; when they originate from without, there is disorder. Therefore the enlightened ruler evaluates merit internally and deploys resources externally -- thus his own state is well ordered and his enemies fall into disorder. The way disorder approaches: when a minister is hated, he stirs trouble externally like a dizzying spell; when a minister is loved, he stirs trouble internally like a drug.

The method of cross-checking and verification: conduct triple-checking to detect multiple schemes; apply five-way assessment to identify failures. Triple-checking must involve separation; five-way assessment must involve confrontation. Without separation, the ruler's authority is cheapened; without confrontation, subordinates collude.

The evidence from separation is sufficient to reveal the scope of the problem; the confrontation must be targeted before the group can coordinate. The key to the method of observing and listening: the sign lies in those who form factions yet receive differential rewards, and in those who are punished without being consulted yet share the same guilt.

When statements converge from multiple sources, you must assess them against the terrain, plan against the seasons, verify against physical evidence, and cross-check against people. When these four verifications align, then observation is reliable.

Cross-check statements to ascertain sincerity. Change the angle of observation to alter perspectives. Seize upon what is observed to detect the unusual. Employ a single standard to manage those in the inner circle. Emphasize the weight of words to intimidate distant envoys. Raise past events to fully understand earlier conduct. Approach those nearby to learn the interior. Place men at a distance to learn the exterior. Grasp what is clear to question what is dark. Deploy deceptive missions to prevent leaks.

Reverse your words to test what you suspect. Argue the opposite to detect hidden treachery. Set up opportunities for remonstrance to catch those who act alone. Make arrangements to observe treacherous movements. Offer clear explanations to lure those who evade blame. Adopt a humble posture to distinguish the upright from the sycophantic. Publicize what you have heard to reach what you have not seen. Create rivalries to scatter factional alliances.

Probe deeply into one matter to alert all minds. Leak divergent information to shift their calculations. When cases appear similar, combine the verification data. When errors are exposed, clarify the underlying pattern. Recognize those who evade punishment to maintain authority. Secretly dispatch inspectors at intervals to examine loyalty. Gradually rotate personnel to break up entrenched alliances.

Use those below to check those above: the chief minister checks the court officials; the court officials check the departmental subordinates; the common soldiers check the military officers; dispatched envoys check the traveling intermediaries; county magistrates check the local clerks; the palace attendants check the ruler's immediate entourage; the consorts check the palace ladies. This is called the method of systematic penetration. If words circulate and affairs leak, then techniques cannot be applied.

The enlightened ruler's essential task lies in being thorough and secretive. If his pleasure is visible, then his favor can be manipulated. If his anger is visible, then his authority is divided. Therefore the enlightened ruler's words are blocked and sealed so they do not circulate, thorough and secretive so they are not perceived.

To gain ten from investing one is the way of the subordinate. To gain one from investing ten is the way of the superior. The enlightened ruler practices both the superior and inferior ways, so that treachery has nowhere to escape.

Groups of five, official networks, chains of liability, and county-level neighbors are linked together: those who report offenses are rewarded; those who fail to report are punished. What applies from superior to subordinate applies equally from subordinate to superior. Therefore at every level, the noble and the humble fear one another through the law and instruct one another in harmony.

Human nature has the substance of life and the name of life. For the ruler, there is the name of wisdom and worthiness, and the substance of rewards and punishments. When name and substance are both present, then the blessing of goodness will inevitably be known.

If the ruler listens without cross-checking, he has no basis on which to hold subordinates accountable. If words are not measured against utility, then perverse doctrines will reach the ruler. The nature of words is that repetition breeds belief: something untrue, if ten people affirm it, becomes doubtful; if a hundred affirm it, becomes plausible; if a thousand affirm it, becomes indisputable. The tongue-tied man's words invite doubt; the eloquent man's words inspire trust. When treachery feeds upon the ruler, it draws resources from the crowd, borrows credibility from eloquence, and uses apparent parallels to adorn its private purposes.

If the ruler does not restrain his anger and instead awaits the convergence of cross-checked evidence, his institutional power will depend on those below. The ruler who possesses the Way listens to words, supervises their application, and evaluates results. When results are evaluated, rewards and punishments follow -- therefore useless eloquence does not linger at court. When those entrusted with affairs prove to lack the knowledge to govern their posts, they are dismissed and their authority reclaimed. When grand claims are exaggerated, the endpoints are exposed -- thus treachery is caught and punished. Words without basis that do not match reality constitute slander, and the slanderer is punished. When every statement must be answered for and every argument must produce results, then the words of factions will not reach the ruler's ears.

The general principles of listening: ministers argue loyally to expose treachery, and debate broadly to arrive at unity. If the ruler lacks intelligence, treachery gains resources. The way of the enlightened ruler: when he feels pleasure, he investigates what was offered to produce it. When he feels anger, he examines what was fabricated to provoke it. He deliberates after events have changed, to obtain the evidence of praise and blame, public and private.

When the multitude remonstrances to demonstrate their cleverness, they let the ruler choose one course in order to evade blame themselves -- therefore collective remonstrance fails. When the ruler makes his choice, he leaves no supplementary words above to establish expectations, but later matches statements to outcomes to distinguish deception from sincerity. The way of the enlightened ruler: ministers may not offer contradictory advice but must commit to a single statement. They may not act on their own authority but must submit to cross-checking. Therefore treachery has no avenue to advance.

Officials become powerful when there is no law. The law falls into disuse when the ruler is benighted. When the ruler is benighted and has no standards, officials act arbitrarily. When officials act arbitrarily, their emoluments swell without limit, and exactions multiply. When exactions multiply, they grow rich. When officials grow rich and powerful, disorder and the corruption of merit arise.

The way of the enlightened ruler: he selects by appointment, values by office, and rewards by merit. When proposals match the standard, the ruler is pleased and all benefit. When they do not match, the ruler is angered and all suffer harm. Under such conditions, men do not privately promote their fathers and brothers but will even advance their enemies. When positional advantage is sufficient to enforce the law and salaries are sufficient to fund operations, there is no room for private gain -- therefore the people toil willingly and regard their officials lightly.

Those entrusted with affairs must not be given excessive influence; their favor must depend solely on rank. Officials in the outer provinces must not have private interests; their benefit must depend solely on salary. Thus the people respect rank and value salary. Rank and salary are the instruments of reward. When the people value the instruments of reward, the state is well governed.

When punishments are confused and titles are misapplied, when rewards and praise are not appropriate, then the people become doubtful. The people value reputation as much as they value rewards. If those who are rewarded are criticized, the rewards are insufficient to encourage. If those who are punished are praised, the punishments are insufficient to deter.

The way of the enlightened ruler: rewards must arise from public benefit, and reputation must depend on service to the ruler. Rewards and praise follow the same track; condemnation and punishment proceed together. Under such conditions, the people find no basis for glory outside the system of rewards. Those who receive heavy punishment will inevitably bear an evil reputation -- therefore the people fear it. Punishment is the instrument of prohibition. When the people fear the instrument of prohibition, the state is well governed.

When private moral conduct is displayed, the ruler's authority is divided. When benevolence is heeded, the legal system is destroyed. The people fear their superiors through institutional control, yet when the ruler uses his positional advantage to humble himself before his subordinates, those below grow reckless and insolent, glorying in the custom of treating the ruler lightly -- thus the ruler's authority is divided.

The people find it difficult to violate the law when challenging their superiors, yet when the ruler bends the law to accommodate benevolence, those below make a show of love and generosity and devote themselves to the politics of bribery and patronage -- thus laws and ordinances collapse. When private conduct is honored so as to rival the ruler's authority, and when bribery is practiced so as to cast doubt upon the law: to heed this leads to disordered governance; to refuse to heed it leads to slander of the ruler. Therefore the ruler sits lightly upon his throne and the law is in chaos among the officials -- this is called a state without constancy.

The way of the enlightened ruler: ministers may not achieve glory through private moral conduct, nor may they claim merit through enriching their families. All merit and fame must originate from the official legal system. Beyond what the law prescribes, even difficult achievements shall not be publicized -- therefore the people have no path to private fame.

Establish legal standards to unify the people. Make rewards and punishments credible to exhaust the people's abilities. Clarify praise and blame to encourage and deter. Titles, rewards and punishments, and laws and ordinances -- these are the three pillars. When great ministers conduct themselves properly, they honor the ruler. When the common people achieve merit, they benefit the ruler. This is called a state that possesses the Way.