顯學

The prominent schools of thought in the world today are the Confucians and the Mohists. The ultimate authority of the Confucians is Confucius. The ultimate authority of the Mohists is Mozi. Since the death of Confucius, there have arisen the Confucianism of Zizhang, the Confucianism of Zisi, the Confucianism of the Yan school, the Confucianism of the Meng school, the Confucianism of the Qidiao school, the Confucianism of the Zhongliang school, the Confucianism of the Sun school, and the Confucianism of Yuezheng. Since the death of Mozi, there have arisen the Mohism of the Xiangli school, the Mohism of the Xiangfu school, and the Mohism of the Dengling school.

Thus after Confucius and Mozi, the Confucians split into eight factions and the Mohists divided into three. Their choices and rejections are mutually contradictory, yet each claims to be the true Confucius or the true Mozi. Confucius and Mozi cannot be brought back to life -- who then shall determine which school is correct?

Confucius and Mozi both invoked Yao and Shun, yet their choices and rejections differed. Each claimed to represent the true Yao and Shun. Yao and Shun cannot be brought back to life -- who then shall determine which, Confucian or Mohist, is sincere? From the Yin and Zhou dynasties, more than seven hundred years have passed; from the ages of Yu and Xia, more than two thousand years. If they cannot determine the truth of the Confucians and Mohists, how can one now hope to ascertain the Way of Yao and Shun from three thousand years ago? Surely this cannot be established with certainty!

To assert something as certain without corroborating evidence is foolishness. To insist upon what cannot be established is fraud. Therefore those who claim to base themselves clearly on the former kings and definitively establish the Way of Yao and Shun are either fools or frauds. The teachings of fools and frauds, the contradictory practices of mixed schools -- the enlightened ruler does not accept them.

In Mohist funeral rites, one wears winter clothes in winter and summer clothes in summer, uses a paulownia coffin three inches thick, and mourns for three months. The world regards this as frugal and honors it. In Confucian funeral rites, one exhausts the family's wealth for the burial, mourns for three years, becomes so emaciated as to need a walking stick. The world regards this as filial and honors it. But if the Mohist way is frugality, then the Confucian way must be extravagance. If the Confucian way is filial piety, then the Mohist way must be callousness. Today filial piety and callousness, extravagance and frugality all coexist in the Confucian and Mohist schools, yet the ruler honors both alike.

The doctrine of the Qidiao school holds that one must not yield in expression or avert one's eyes: if one's conduct is crooked, one should be treated worse than a slave; if one's conduct is straight, one should show anger even to feudal lords. The world regards this as integrity and honors it. The doctrine of Song Rongzi holds that one should establish the principle of non-contention, should not harbor enmity when something is taken, should not be ashamed of imprisonment, and should not feel insulted when humiliated. The world regards this as magnanimity and honors it. But if the Qidiao school's position is integrity, then Song Rongzi's must be indulgence. If Song Rongzi's position is magnanimity, then the Qidiao school's must be violence. Today magnanimity and integrity, indulgence and violence all coexist in these two thinkers, yet the ruler honors them both alike.

From the teachings of fools and frauds, from the contending words of contradictory schools, the ruler listens to all alike. Consequently the scholars within the seas have no fixed methods in their words and no constant principles in their conduct. Ice and charcoal cannot long share the same vessel. Cold and heat cannot arrive at the same season. Contradictory teachings cannot both stand and still produce order. To listen to mixed doctrines and contradictory words of similarity and difference -- how can there be anything but disorder? If listening and acting proceed in this way, governance of the people will inevitably share the same result.

Among today's scholars who discuss governance, many say: 'Give land to the poor to supply those without resources.' But consider: among men living under the same conditions, if one man alone prospers without windfall gains from bumper harvests or outside income, it is because of either diligence or frugality. If another man alone falls into poverty without the calamities of famine, disease, or criminal punishment, it is because of either extravagance or laziness.

The extravagant and lazy become poor; the diligent and frugal become rich. Now if the ruler levies taxes on the rich to distribute to the poor, this is robbing the diligent and frugal to give to the extravagant and lazy. Under such conditions, to expect the people to work hard and spend sparingly is impossible.

Suppose there is a man who, on principle, will not enter a besieged city, will not serve in the army, and would not exchange a single hair from his shin for the greatest profit under Heaven. The ruler of the age will inevitably honor him, prize his wisdom and exalt his conduct, regarding him as a man who values life above material things. But the reason the ruler provides fine fields, grand residences, and establishes ranks and salaries is precisely to exchange these for the people's willingness to risk their lives. If the ruler honors those who value life above material things, yet expects the people to go to their deaths and sacrifice themselves in the ruler's service -- this is impossible.

Suppose there is a man who collects books and documents, practices discussion and debate, gathers disciples and followers, dresses in scholarly robes and engages in argumentation. The ruler of the age will inevitably honor him, saying: 'To respect worthy scholars is the Way of the former kings.' But those whom the officials tax are the farmers, while those whom the ruler nourishes are the scholars. If farmers are heavily taxed while scholars are lavishly rewarded, yet the ruler expects the people to work hard and refrain from empty talk -- this is impossible.

Suppose there is a man who establishes his integrity with perfect clarity, maintains his principles without yielding, and when offensive words reach his ears, invariably follows them with his sword. The ruler of the age will inevitably honor him, regarding him as a man of self-respect. But if the labor of taking heads in battle goes unrewarded while private brawling is honored and elevated, yet the ruler expects the people to fight hard against enemies and refrain from private dueling -- this is impossible.

In peacetime the state nourishes Confucian scholars and knights-errant; when crisis arrives it employs armored soldiers. Those whom it nourishes are not those whom it employs; those whom it employs are not those whom it nourishes. This is the source of disorder.

Moreover, when the ruler listens to the doctrines of scholars: if he considers their words correct, he should promulgate them as official policy and employ the speakers. If he considers their words incorrect, he should dismiss the speakers and suppress their teachings. But today, to consider words correct yet not promulgate them officially, or to consider words incorrect yet not suppress them -- to approve and not employ, to disapprove and not suppress: this is the path to disorder and ruin.

Dantai Ziyu had the bearing of a gentleman. Confucius hastened to accept him as a disciple, but after long association found that his conduct did not match his appearance. Zai Yu's speech was refined and elegant. Confucius hastened to accept him, but after long association found that his intelligence did not match his eloquence. Therefore Confucius said: 'If I judge men by appearance, I am deceived by Ziyu. If I judge men by words, I am deceived by Zai Yu.' Thus even with Confucius's intelligence, he was known for misjudging reality.

Today's fashionable debaters are even more effusive than Zai Yu, and today's rulers are even more easily dazzled than Confucius. If, delighted by a man's words, the ruler then entrusts him with responsibility, how can there be no error? Thus Wei entrusted itself to the eloquence of Meng Mao and suffered the disaster at Hua. Zhao entrusted itself to the eloquence of the Lord of Mafu and suffered the catastrophe at Changping. Both cases were failures from entrusting authority to eloquence.

If you examine the forging of tin and inspect the colors of blue and yellow, even Ou Ye cannot guarantee a sword. But if you test it by striking waterfowl on the water and cutting horses on land, then even a common slave will have no doubt about its sharpness or dullness. If you examine the teeth, lips, and form of a horse, even Bo Le cannot guarantee its quality. But if you harness it to a chariot and observe its performance at the end of the road, then even a common slave will have no doubt about whether it is a nag or a thoroughbred.

If you observe appearance and clothing and listen to speech, even Confucius cannot guarantee a man's quality. But if you test him in official duties and evaluate his achievements, then even an ordinary person will have no doubt about who is foolish and who is wise.

Therefore in the state of an enlightened ruler, prime ministers must rise from the district level, and fierce generals must emerge from the ranks. When those with merit are invariably rewarded, then as salaries and ranks grow generous, men are further encouraged. When promotions follow a sequence of grades, then as offices grow great, governance improves further. When ranks and salaries are great and official duties are well managed -- that is the Way of a true king.

A thousand li of barren rock cannot be called wealth. A million straw figures cannot be called strength. It is not that the rock is not vast or the number not great -- the reason they cannot be called wealth and strength is that barren rock does not produce grain, and straw figures cannot be made to resist enemies.

Today, merchants, officials, and artisans also eat without tilling -- this is uncultivated land, the same in essence as barren rock. Confucian scholars and knights-errant bear no military labor, yet are made prominent and honored -- the people cannot be employed under such conditions, the same in essence as straw figures.

To understand the uselessness of barren rock and straw figures but not to understand the uselessness of merchants, officials, scholars, and knights-errant as uncultivated land and unemployable people -- this is to fail to understand the analogy of things.

Even if the king of a rival state admires my righteousness, I will not pay tribute and submit to him. Even if the lords within my borders disapprove of my conduct, I will make them hold offerings of game and attend my court. Therefore: those with superior force receive the tribute of men; those with inferior force pay tribute to men. The enlightened ruler devotes himself to building strength.

A stern household has no unruly slaves, but a loving mother produces spoiled children. From this I know that authoritative power and positional advantage can prohibit violence, while generous virtue is insufficient to stop disorder.

The sage's method of governing a state does not rely upon people being good on his behalf, but rather ensures that they cannot do wrong. If you rely upon people being good, within your borders you will not find ten such people. If you ensure that people cannot do wrong, the entire state can be made uniform. One who governs employs what applies to the many and discards what applies to the few -- therefore he does not devote effort to virtue but devotes effort to the law.

If you insist upon naturally straight arrows, a hundred generations will produce no arrows. If you insist upon naturally round wood, a thousand generations will produce no wheels. Naturally straight arrows and naturally round wood -- in a hundred generations there may not be a single one. Yet everyone in the world rides chariots and shoots game. Why? Because the straightening board and the compass are employed. Even if, without relying on straightening board and compass, there existed naturally straight arrows and naturally round wood, the master craftsman would not prize them. Why? Because the rider is not one man, and the archer does not shoot just once.

Likewise, the enlightened ruler does not prize people who are naturally good without the incentive of rewards and punishments. Why? Because the law of the state cannot be lost, and what he governs is not a single person. Therefore the ruler who possesses techniques does not follow the accidental goodness of nature but practices the path of what is certain.

If someone were to say to a man: 'I shall make you certainly intelligent and long-lived,' the world would regard him as mad. Intelligence is a matter of nature; longevity is a matter of fate. Nature and fate are not things that can be learned from others. To promise people what cannot be delivered -- this is why the world calls such a person mad. To say that something cannot be so is itself a kind of persuasion -- and persuasion deals with human nature.

To teach people benevolence and righteousness is like promising them intelligence and longevity. A ruler who possesses standards will not accept this. Praising the beauty of Mao Qiang and Xi Shi does nothing for my own face; but applying oils, powders, and cosmetics doubles what I started with. Speaking of the benevolence and righteousness of the former kings does nothing for governance; but clarifying my legal standards and making my rewards and punishments certain -- these are the oils, powders, and cosmetics of the state.

Therefore the enlightened ruler attends urgently to what assists him and is slow to attend to what merely praises him. For this reason, he does not speak of benevolence and righteousness.

When sorcerers and shamans invoke blessings upon a man, they say: 'May you live a thousand autumns and ten thousand years.' The sound of 'a thousand autumns and ten thousand years' fills the ears, yet not a single day of longevity is actually conferred upon the person. This is why people treat sorcerers and shamans lightly.

Today's Confucian scholars, when advising the ruler, do not examine what currently constitutes good governance but speak of achievements already accomplished. They do not scrutinize the affairs of official law, do not investigate the circumstances of treachery and wickedness, but invariably discourse on the transmitted glories of high antiquity and the accomplished successes of the former kings. Confucian scholars adorn their words and say: 'Heed my words, and you can become a hegemon-king.' These persuaders are the sorcerers and shamans of political counsel. A ruler who possesses standards does not accept them.

Therefore the enlightened ruler takes up real affairs, removes what is useless, does not speak of benevolence and righteousness on principle, and does not listen to the words of scholars.

Those who do not understand governance invariably say: 'Win the hearts of the people.' If winning the hearts of the people were sufficient for governance, then Yi Yin and Guan Zhong would have been unnecessary -- one would simply listen to the people and be done with it.

The judgment of the people cannot be relied upon, just as the mind of an infant cannot. When an infant's scalp is not shaved, he gets stomachaches. When boils are not lanced, they grow worse. To shave the scalp or lance the boil, one person must hold the child while the loving mother treats him, and still the child screams without stopping. The infant does not understand that enduring small suffering brings great benefit.

Today the ruler urgently promotes plowing fields and clearing wasteland to increase the people's production -- yet the people consider him cruel. He maintains punishments and imposes heavy penalties to prohibit wickedness -- yet the people consider him harsh. He levies taxes in money and grain to fill the granaries, in order to relieve famine and prepare for military campaigns -- yet the people consider him greedy. He requires that all within the borders wear armor with no private exemptions, and that they combine their strength and fight hard, in order to capture enemies -- yet the people consider him tyrannical.

These four policies are the means to governance and security, yet the people do not know to be pleased by them. The ruler must seek a sage's understanding to comprehend this.