秦本紀

The ancestors of Qin descended from Emperor Zhuanxu. Among his distant descendants was a woman called Nu Xiu. While Nu Xiu was weaving, a dark bird dropped an egg; Nu Xiu swallowed it and bore a son named Da Ye. Da Ye married a daughter of the Shaodian clan called Nu Hua. Nu Hua bore Da Fei, who assisted Yu in taming the floods and controlling the land. When the work was done, the Emperor bestowed a dark jade tablet. Yu accepted it and said: "It was not I alone who accomplished this — Da Fei served as my deputy." Emperor Shun said: "Da Fei, you have aided Yu's great work. I grant you a dark banner. Your descendants shall flourish greatly." He then gave Da Fei a jade maiden of the Yao surname in marriage. Da Fei bowed and accepted, and went on to assist Shun in taming birds and beasts, bringing many wild creatures under control. He is the one known as Bo Yi. Shun bestowed upon him the surname Ying.

Da Fei had two sons. The first was Da Lian, who founded the Niaoshu clan; the second was Ruo Mu, who founded the Fei clan. A great-grandson named Fei Chang had descendants scattered both within the Central States and among the barbarian peoples. In the time of Jie, last king of the Xia, Fei Chang abandoned Xia and went over to Shang. He served as charioteer to Tang and helped defeat Jie at Mingtiao.

Da Lian's great-grandsons Meng Xi and Zhong Yan had bird-like bodies but spoke with human voices. Emperor Taiwu of Shang heard of them, divined on appointing them as charioteers, and received an auspicious result. He made them charioteers and gave them wives. From Taiwu onward, the descendants of Zhong Yan rendered meritorious service generation after generation, assisting the Yin state. Thus the Ying surname became prominent, and members of the clan were enfeoffed as lords.

A later descendant named Zhong Jue settled among the Western Rong and defended the western frontier. He fathered Fei Lian. Fei Lian fathered E Lai. E Lai was a man of great strength; Fei Lian was a swift runner. Father and son both served the Shang king Zhou by virtue of their physical prowess. When King Wu of Zhou attacked King Zhou, he killed E Lai as well. At that time Fei Lian had been sent north by King Zhou to collect stone. He returned to find no one to report to, so he built an altar on Mount Huo to make his report. There he discovered a stone coffin inscribed: "The Lord on High commands that Chu Fu shall not share in the Yin calamity. He is granted this stone coffin to glorify his line." Fei Lian died and was buried on Mount Huo.

Fei Lian had another son called Ji Sheng. Ji Sheng fathered Meng Zeng. Meng Zeng was favoured by King Cheng of Zhou and was known as "the one who dwelt at Gaolang." Gaolang fathered Heng Fu, and Heng Fu fathered Zao Fu. Zao Fu won the favour of King Mu of Zhou through his skill as a charioteer. With his team of four fine horses — Ji, Wenli, Huarui, and Luer — King Mu toured the west and was so delighted he forgot to return. When the Xu Yanwang raised a rebellion, Zao Fu drove for King Mu, racing back to Zhou a thousand li in a single day to suppress the revolt. King Mu enfeoffed Zao Fu with the city of Zhao, and from then on Zao Fu's branch of the clan took the surname Zhao. From Fei Lian's son Ji Sheng, five generations down to Zao Fu, this branch settled separately at Zhao. Zhao Cui of the Spring and Autumn period was their descendant.

E Lai Ge, a son of Fei Lian, died young. His descendant Feizi lived at Quanqiu, where he loved horses and livestock and excelled at breeding them. The people of Quanqiu commended him to King Xiao of Zhou. The king summoned him and put him in charge of the royal horses in the pastures between the Qian and Wei rivers. The horses multiplied greatly.

King Xiao wished to make Feizi the designated heir of Daluo. But the daughter of the Lord of Shen was Daluo's wife and had already borne a son, Cheng, who was the designated heir. The Lord of Shen therefore addressed King Xiao: "In former times, my ancestress, a woman of Mount Li, married the Rong chieftain Xu Xuan and bore Zhong Jue. Because of this kinship, Zhong Jue's line returned to serve Zhou and defended the western frontier; the western borderlands were peaceful on that account. Now I have again given a daughter to Daluo, and she has borne the heir Cheng. The double marriage alliance between the Shen and Luo clans keeps all the Western Rong in submission — this is what secures Your Majesty's position. Your Majesty should consider this carefully."

King Xiao then said: "In ancient times Bo Yi served Shun as Master of Livestock; his herds multiplied, and for that he was granted land and the surname Ying. Now his descendant likewise breeds my horses. I shall grant him a parcel of land as an appanage." He gave Feizi the town of Qin and had him continue the sacrifices of the Ying clan, with the title "Qin Ying." At the same time, the king did not depose the Lord of Shen's daughter's son as Daluo's heir, so as to maintain peace with the Western Rong.

Qin Ying fathered Qin Hou. Qin Hou reigned for ten years and died. He fathered Gong Bo. Gong Bo reigned for three years and died. He fathered Qin Zhong.

In the third year of Qin Zhong's rule, King Li of Zhou was governing tyrannically, and some of the feudal lords revolted. The Western Rong turned against the royal house and wiped out the Daluo clan at Quanqiu. When King Xuan of Zhou came to the throne, he appointed Qin Zhong as a Grand Master and ordered him to punish the Western Rong. But the Western Rong killed Qin Zhong. He had ruled for twenty-three years when he died fighting the Rong.

He had five sons, the eldest of whom was Duke Zhuang. King Xuan of Zhou summoned Duke Zhuang and his four brothers, gave them seven thousand troops, and sent them to attack the Western Rong. They defeated them. The king then restored to Qin Zhong's heirs all the former Daluo territory at Quanqiu, and appointed them Grand Masters of the Western Frontier.

Duke Zhuang settled at the old Western Quanqiu and had three sons. The eldest was Shi Fu. Shi Fu declared: "The Rong killed my grandfather Qin Zhong. I will not dare enter the city until I have slain the Rong king." He set out to fight the Rong, yielding his position as heir to his younger brother, Duke Xiang. Duke Xiang became the designated successor.

Duke Zhuang reigned forty-four years and died. His heir Duke Xiang succeeded him. In the first year of his reign, Duke Xiang gave his younger sister Mu Ying in marriage to the King of Feng. In the second year, the Rong besieged Quanqiu. Shi Fu attacked them but was captured. After more than a year, the Rong returned him.

In the seventh year, in spring, King You of Zhou deposed his crown prince in favour of Baosi's son, and repeatedly deceived the feudal lords. The lords turned against him. The Western Rong and Quanrong, together with the Lord of Shen, attacked Zhou and killed King You below Mount Li. Duke Xiang of Qin led troops to rescue Zhou and fought with great valor, earning merit. The Zhou court fled the Quanrong threat and moved east to Luoyi. Duke Xiang escorted King Ping with his army.

King Ping enfeoffed Duke Xiang as a feudal lord and granted him all the land west of Qi. He said: "The Rong are lawless and have seized my lands of Qi and Feng. If Qin can attack and drive them out, the land shall be yours." He swore an oath and bestowed the title. Duke Xiang thus established Qin as a state for the first time, exchanging envoys and gifts with the other feudal lords on equal terms. He sacrificed three colts with feathered manes, three yellow oxen, and three rams at the Western Altar to the Supreme God. In the twelfth year, he campaigned against the Rong and advanced as far as Qi, where he died. His son was Duke Wen.

In the first year of Duke Wen's reign, he resided at the Palace of the Western Frontier. In the third year, Duke Wen led seven hundred men on a hunting expedition to the east. In the fourth year, he reached the confluence of the Qian and Wei rivers. He said: "Long ago, the Zhou granted my ancestor Qin Ying a town here, and ultimately he won the rank of feudal lord." He divined on whether to settle there; the oracle was auspicious, and he built a city on the spot.

In the tenth year, he established the Fu Altar and used three sets of sacrificial animals. In the thirteenth year, Qin for the first time appointed scribes to record events, and many of the people adopted civilised customs. In the sixteenth year, Duke Wen attacked the Rong with his army; the Rong were defeated and fled. Thereupon Duke Wen gathered the remnant Zhou people and took them under his rule. His territory extended as far as Qi; the land east of Qi he presented to Zhou.

In the nineteenth year, the Chen Treasure was discovered. In the twentieth year, the law of collective punishment covering three degrees of kinship was first enacted. In the twenty-seventh year, he attacked the great catalpas of the Southern Mountains and sacrificed a great bull. In the forty-eighth year, Duke Wen's crown prince died and was posthumously titled Duke Jing. Duke Jing's son became the heir — this was Duke Wen's grandson. In the fiftieth year, Duke Wen died and was buried at the Western Mountains. Duke Jing's son took the throne; he was Duke Ning.

In the second year of Duke Ning's reign, the duke moved his residence to Pingyang. He sent troops to attack the Dangshe. In the third year, he fought against Bo; the King of Bo fled to the Rong, and Dangshe was destroyed. In the fourth year, the Lu prince Hui assassinated his lord, Duke Yin of Lu.

In the twelfth year, he attacked the Dang clan and conquered them. Duke Ning had come to the throne at the age of ten and reigned for twelve years before his death. He was buried at the Western Mountains. He had three sons: the eldest, Duke Wu, was crown prince. Duke Wu's younger brother was Duke De, born of the same mother, a Ji woman from Lu. He also fathered Chu Zi.

When Duke Ning died, the Great Shuchang officials — Fu Ji, Wei Lei, and San Fu — deposed the crown prince and installed Chu Zi as ruler. In the sixth year of Chu Zi's reign, San Fu and the others had assassins murder Chu Zi. Chu Zi had come to the throne at the age of five and reigned for six years. San Fu and the others then reinstated the former crown prince, Duke Wu.

In the first year of Duke Wu's reign, he attacked the Pengxi clan, advancing as far as the foot of Mount Hua, and resided at the Feng Palace in Pingyang. In the third year, he executed San Fu and the other conspirators, exterminating their clans to the third degree, in retribution for the murder of Chu Zi. In Zheng, Gao Qumei assassinated his lord, Duke Zhao of Zheng.

In the tenth year, Duke Wu attacked the Gui and Ji Rong and for the first time organised their territory into counties. In the eleventh year, he made Du and Zheng into counties for the first time, and destroyed Lesser Guo.

In the thirteenth year, the Qi men Guan Zhifu and Lian Cheng and others killed their lord, Duke Xiang of Qi, and installed Gongsun Wuzhi. Jin destroyed Huo, Wei, and Geng. The Qi man Yong Lin killed Wuzhi and Guan Zhifu and installed Duke Huan of Qi. Qi and Jin became powerful states.

In the nineteenth year, the Jin branch at Quwo at last became the legitimate lords of Jin. Duke Huan of Qi held a conference of lords at Juan and assumed hegemony.

In the twentieth year, Duke Wu died and was buried at Yong in Pingyang. For the first time, human attendants were made to follow their lord in death: sixty-six people accompanied him. He had one son named Bai, but Bai was not installed as ruler — he was enfeoffed at Pingyang. Instead, Duke Wu's younger brother Duke De succeeded.

In the first year of Duke De's reign, he took up residence at the Great Zheng Palace in the city of Yong. He sacrificed three hundred sets of animals at the Fu Altar. He divined on settling at Yong, and the oracle said that his descendants would one day water their horses at the Yellow River. The Lord of Liang and the Lord of Rui came to pay court. In the second year, the Fu Day ritual was first established, using dogs to ward off pestilence. Duke De was thirty-three when he took the throne and reigned for only two years before his death. He had three sons: the eldest, Duke Xuan; the middle son, Duke Cheng; and the youngest, Duke Mu. The eldest, Duke Xuan, succeeded.

In the first year of Duke Xuan's reign, Wei and Yan attacked Zhou, drove out King Hui, and installed Prince Tui. In the third year, the Lord of Zheng and the Lord of Guo killed Prince Tui and restored King Hui. In the fourth year, Duke Xuan built the Mi Altar. He fought Jin at Heyang and won. In the twelfth year, Duke Xuan died. He had nine sons, but none of them was installed as his successor; instead his younger brother Duke Cheng took the throne.

In the first year of Duke Cheng's reign, the Lord of Liang and the Lord of Rui came to pay court. Duke Huan of Qi attacked the Shanrong and camped at Guzhu.

Duke Cheng reigned for four years and died. He had seven sons, but none succeeded him; instead, his younger brother Duke Mu took the throne.

In the first year of Duke Mu Ren Hao's reign, he personally led an attack on Maojin and won. In the fourth year, he received a bride from Jin — the elder sister of Jin Crown Prince Shensheng. That same year, Duke Huan of Qi attacked Chu and advanced as far as Shaoling.

In the fifth year, Duke Xian of Jin destroyed the states of Yu and Guo, capturing the Lord of Yu and his Grand Master Baili Xi. This had come about because Yu had accepted bribes of jade and horses to grant Jin passage through its territory. After capturing Baili Xi, Jin sent him to Qin as part of the bridal retinue of Duke Mu's new wife. But Baili Xi escaped from Qin and fled to Wan, where a man of the Chu borderlands seized him.

Duke Mu heard that Baili Xi was a man of ability and wished to ransom him at a high price, but feared the people of Chu would refuse. So he sent a messenger to Chu saying: "My wife's attendant slave Baili Xi is in your lands. I request to ransom him for five ram skins." The Chu people agreed to hand him over.

At that time, Baili Xi was already over seventy years old. Duke Mu released him from his bonds and discussed affairs of state with him. Baili Xi demurred: "I am a minister of a fallen state — what is there worth asking me?" Duke Mu said: "The Lord of Yu did not heed your counsel, and that is why he perished. The fault was not yours." He pressed him, and they talked for three days. Duke Mu was greatly pleased and entrusted him with the government of the state, giving him the title "Grand Master of the Five Ram Skins."

Baili Xi declined, saying: "I am not the equal of my friend Jian Shu. Jian Shu is a man of true worth, yet the world does not know him. I once wandered in Qi, destitute and begging food from a rope-maker; Jian Shu took me in. I then wished to serve the Qi ruler Wuzhi, but Jian Shu stopped me — and so I escaped the troubles in Qi. I went on to Zhou. Prince Tui of Zhou was fond of cattle, so I tried to gain his favour by raising oxen. When Tui was about to employ me, Jian Shu stopped me again — I departed and thus avoided being executed. When I served the Lord of Yu, Jian Shu warned me against it. I knew the Lord of Yu would not heed me, but I was privately drawn by the salary and rank, so I stayed. Twice I followed Jian Shu's advice and escaped danger; the one time I did not, I was caught up in Yu's downfall. This is how I know his worth."

Duke Mu thereupon sent envoys with rich gifts to invite Jian Shu, and appointed him Senior Grand Master.

In the autumn, Duke Mu personally led an attack on Jin and fought at Hequ. In Jin, Lady Li had caused turmoil: Crown Prince Shensheng died at Xincheng, while Chonger and Yiwu fled into exile.

In the ninth year, Duke Huan of Qi convened the feudal lords at Kuiqiu.

Duke Xian of Jin died. Lady Li's son Xi Qi was installed, but the Jin minister Li Ke assassinated him. Xun Xi then installed Zhuo Zi, but Li Ke killed Zhuo Zi and Xun Xi as well. Yiwu sent a messenger to Qin requesting help to enter Jin. Duke Mu agreed and ordered Baili Xi to lead troops escorting Yiwu back. Yiwu had promised: "If I am truly installed as ruler, I will cede Jin's eight cities west of the Yellow River to Qin."

But once he was established on the throne, Yiwu sent Pi Zheng to Qin to offer apologies and reneged on the agreement, refusing to hand over the cities west of the river. He also executed Li Ke. Pi Zheng, hearing of this and fearing for his own safety, conspired with Duke Mu, saying: "The Jin people do not want Yiwu — they truly want Chonger. The breach of the treaty with Qin and the killing of Li Ke were all the doing of Lu Sheng and Xi Rui. If Your Lordship uses incentives to urgently summon Lu and Xi, once they arrive, it will be easier to replace Yiwu with Chonger." Duke Mu agreed and sent people to accompany Pi Zheng back to Jin to summon Lu and Xi. But Lu, Xi, and the others suspected Pi Zheng of treachery and persuaded Yiwu to execute him.

Pi Zheng's son Pi Bao fled to Qin and urged Duke Mu: "The lord of Jin is without principle and the people do not support him. You can attack." Duke Mu replied: "If the people truly did not support him, how could he execute his own Grand Masters? The fact that he can execute his ministers shows he has the state well in hand." He declined to listen, but secretly kept Pi Bao in his service.

In the twelfth year, Guan Zhong and Xi Peng of Qi died.

Jin suffered a drought and sent to Qin requesting grain. Pi Bao urged Duke Mu to refuse and to exploit the famine by attacking. Duke Mu consulted Gongsun Zhi, who said: "Famine and plenty come in turns — you must not refuse." He asked Baili Xi, who said: "Yiwu has given offence to Your Lordship, but what crime have his people committed?" Duke Mu followed the counsel of Baili Xi and Gongsun Zhi and in the end sent the grain. Boats on the river and carts on the roads formed an unbroken line from Yong all the way to Jiang.

In the fourteenth year, Qin in turn suffered a famine and requested grain from Jin. Duke Hui of Jin consulted his ministers. Guo She said: "Exploit their famine and attack — this is a chance for great achievement." The Duke of Jin followed this advice. In the fifteenth year, he raised an army to attack Qin.

Duke Mu mobilised his forces, appointed Pi Bao as general, and went himself to meet the attack. On the renxu day of the ninth month, he fought Duke Hui Yiwu at Han. The Duke of Jin abandoned his own army to race ahead for plunder; on the way back his horses became mired. Duke Mu and his bodyguard charged in pursuit but could not capture the Duke of Jin, and were instead surrounded by the Jin army. The Jin troops struck Duke Mu, wounding him.

At that moment, three hundred men from below Mount Qi — the ones who had eaten his fine horse — charged through the Jin lines. The Jin encirclement broke, Duke Mu was rescued, and the Duke of Jin was captured alive.

The story behind this was as follows: Duke Mu had once lost a fine horse, and over three hundred common folk below Mount Qi had caught and eaten it. Officials tracked them down and intended to punish them. Duke Mu said: "A gentleman does not harm people over livestock. I have heard that eating fine horse-meat without drinking wine causes injury." He gave them all wine and pardoned them. When these three hundred men heard that Qin was fighting Jin, they all volunteered to join. When they saw Duke Mu in peril, they threw themselves forward, competing to die, in repayment for his kindness over the horse.

Duke Mu brought the captive Duke of Jin home and issued a decree throughout the state: purify yourselves and fast — I shall sacrifice the Duke of Jin to the Supreme God. The Son of Heaven heard of this and said: "Jin shares my surname," and interceded for the Duke of Jin. Yiwu's elder sister was also Duke Mu's wife. When the duchess heard the decree, she put on mourning garments and went barefoot, saying: "My brother and I cannot save each other, and I have brought shame upon Your Lordship's command." Duke Mu said: "I captured the Duke of Jin as a great achievement. But now the Son of Heaven pleads for him, and my wife grieves." So he made a covenant with the Duke of Jin, agreed to release him, moved him to the finest quarters, and feasted him with seven sets of sacrificial animals.

In the eleventh month, he sent Duke Hui Yiwu home. Yiwu ceded his lands west of the Yellow River and sent his crown prince Yu as a hostage to Qin. Qin married Prince Yu to a woman of the royal clan. At this time, Qin's territory reached east to the Yellow River.

In the eighteenth year, Duke Huan of Qi died. In the twentieth year, Qin destroyed the states of Liang and Rui.

In the twenty-second year, the Jin prince Yu, held hostage in Qin, heard that the Duke of Jin was ill. He said: "Liang was my mother's home, and Qin has destroyed it. I have many brothers. Once the duke dies, Qin will certainly detain me, and since Jin will think little of me, they will install another prince." So Prince Yu fled back to Jin. In the twenty-third year, Duke Hui of Jin died and Prince Yu succeeded as ruler.

Qin resented Yu's escape and therefore invited the Jin prince Chonger from Chu, giving him the wife who had formerly been Prince Yu's. Chonger at first declined, but eventually accepted. Duke Mu treated him with ever-greater ceremony. In the spring of the twenty-fourth year, Qin sent word to the Jin ministers that he wished to install Chonger. Jin assented, and Qin escorted Chonger home. In the second month, Chonger was installed as lord of Jin — this was Duke Wen. Duke Wen had Prince Yu killed. Prince Yu is known posthumously as Duke Huai.

That autumn, Prince Dai, brother of King Xiang of Zhou, used the Di barbarians to attack the king, who fled to Zheng. In the twenty-fifth year, the Zhou king sent word of his distress to both Jin and Qin. Duke Mu of Qin led troops to assist Duke Wen of Jin in restoring King Xiang and killing Prince Dai.

In the twenty-eighth year, Duke Wen of Jin defeated Chu at the Battle of Chengpu. In the thirtieth year, Duke Mu joined Duke Wen of Jin in besieging Zheng. Zheng sent an envoy to Duke Mu, who said: "Destroying Zheng will only strengthen Jin. Jin gains everything, while Qin gains nothing. A stronger Jin is a worry for Qin." Duke Mu thereupon withdrew his forces and returned home. Jin likewise withdrew.

In the winter of the thirty-second year, Duke Wen of Jin died.

A man of Zheng offered to betray Zheng to Qin, saying: "I am in charge of the city gate. Zheng can be taken by surprise." Duke Mu consulted Jian Shu and Baili Xi. They replied: "To cross through several states over a thousand li to mount a surprise attack — rarely does anyone profit from that. Moreover, if a man of Zheng is willing to sell out his own state, how do we know that someone in our state is not informing Zheng of our plans? It cannot be done."

Duke Mu said: "You do not understand. I have already decided." He mobilised the army and appointed Baili Xi's son Meng Mingshi, Jian Shu's son Xi Qishu, and Bai Yibing as commanders. On the day the army marched, Baili Xi and Jian Shu wept at the gate. Duke Mu heard and was furious: "I am sending forth my army and you weep to demoralise it — why?" The two old men said: "We would not dare demoralise Your Lordship's army. The army marches, and our sons go with it. We are old, and if they are late returning we fear we shall not see them again. That is why we weep." The two withdrew and said to their sons: "If your army meets defeat, it will surely be at the narrows of Xiao."

In the spring of the thirty-third year, the Qin army marched east, passing through Jin territory and past the northern gate of the Zhou capital. The Zhou prince Wang Sun Man remarked: "The Qin army is without propriety — how can it not meet defeat?"

When the army reached Hua, a Zheng merchant named Xian Gao, who was taking twelve oxen to sell in Zhou, saw the Qin force. Fearing capture or death, he presented his oxen, saying: "I have heard that your great state intends to chastise Zheng. Our lord has prepared his defences, and he sends your servant with twelve oxen to feast the troops." The three Qin generals conferred: "We meant to surprise Zheng, but Zheng is already aware. There is no point in going further." They destroyed Hua instead. Hua was a border town of Jin.

At that time, Duke Wen of Jin had not yet been buried. His heir, Duke Xiang, was furious: "Qin insults us in our mourning and destroys our border town of Hua during our funeral." He dyed his mourning garments black, led out his army, and intercepted the Qin forces at the pass of Xiao. He struck and utterly destroyed the Qin army — not a single man escaped. The three Qin generals were captured and brought back.

Duke Wen's widow, who was a daughter of Qin, pleaded for the three captive generals: "Duke Mu's hatred for these three men has sunk into his very marrow. Let these three return so that my lord can have the satisfaction of boiling them himself." The Duke of Jin agreed and released the three generals.

When the three arrived home, Duke Mu came out to the suburbs in plain white garments to meet them. Facing them, he wept and said: "Because I failed to heed the words of Baili Xi and Jian Shu, I brought shame upon you three. What fault was yours? Devote your hearts to wiping out this disgrace, and do not falter." He restored all three to their former ranks and treated them with even greater honour.

In the thirty-fourth year, the Chu crown prince Shang Chen murdered his father, King Cheng of Chu, and took the throne in his place.

Duke Mu thereupon sent Meng Mingshi and the others to lead another campaign against Jin. They fought at Pengya, but Qin fared badly and withdrew.

In Duke Mu's thirty-fourth year (626 BC), Crown Prince Shang Chen of Chu murdered his father King Cheng and took the throne.

Duke Mu again dispatched Meng Mingshi and the other generals to attack Jin. They fought at Pengya, but Qin fared poorly and withdrew.

The king of the Rong barbarians sent You Yu on an embassy to Qin. You Yu was of Jin descent: his ancestors had fled into Rong territory, and he could speak the Jin language. Having heard of Duke Mu's virtue, the Rong king sent You Yu to observe Qin. Duke Mu showed him the palaces and storehouses. You Yu remarked: "If spirits built all this, they must have exhausted themselves. If men built it, the people must have suffered greatly."

Duke Mu was surprised and asked: "The Central States govern through the Odes, Documents, rites, music, and legal codes, yet they still fall into disorder. The Rong have none of these — how can they possibly maintain order? Surely it must be difficult."

You Yu laughed and said: "That is precisely why the Central States fall into disorder. When the sage-emperor the Yellow Emperor first created rites, music, and legal codes, he practiced them himself and barely achieved a modest order. In later generations, rulers grew ever more arrogant and dissolute. They relied on the intimidating power of laws and regulations to press demands on those below; the exhausted people below then cited benevolence and righteousness to express resentment toward those above. Upper and lower levels clashed in mutual resentment, usurping and assassinating one another until entire lineages were destroyed — all from this same pattern. The Rong are different. Those above embrace pure virtue in dealing with those below; those below cherish loyalty and good faith in serving those above. Governing an entire state is like governing a single body — they do not even realize how order is maintained. This is truly the government of the sage."

Duke Mu withdrew and consulted his Interior Scribe Liao: "I have heard that when a neighboring state has a sage, it becomes a rival state's peril. Now You Yu is a man of talent — he is a threat to me. What should I do?"

Interior Scribe Liao said: "The Rong king dwells in a remote backwater and has never heard the music of the Central States. Try sending him a troupe of female musicians to bewitch his mind. Then request that You Yu be detained, to sow suspicion between them. Keep You Yu here and delay his return, so he misses his appointed time. The Rong king will grow suspicious and will surely doubt You Yu. Once there is a rift between ruler and minister, the Rong can be conquered. Moreover, if the Rong king develops a taste for music, he will certainly neglect his government."

Duke Mu said: "Excellent." He proceeded to sit with You Yu at a private banquet, share dishes, and question him thoroughly about the Rong's terrain and military dispositions. Then he had Interior Scribe Liao send a troupe of sixteen female musicians to the Rong king. The Rong king accepted them with delight and for an entire year did not return You Yu. Qin then sent You Yu home. You Yu remonstrated repeatedly, but the Rong king would not listen. Duke Mu meanwhile sent agents to secretly approach You Yu, and You Yu eventually defected to Qin. Duke Mu received him with the courtesy due a guest and consulted him on strategy for attacking the Rong.

In Duke Mu's thirty-sixth year (624 BC), he again honored Meng Mingshi and the others, and sent them to attack Jin. They crossed the Yellow River and burned their boats, inflicting a crushing defeat on Jin and capturing Wangguan and Hao, avenging the disaster at Xiao. The people of Jin all retreated behind their city walls and dared not come out. Duke Mu then crossed the river at Maojin, gathered up the corpses from Xiao, held funeral rites, and wept for three days. He made a solemn oath before the army: "Hear me, soldiers! Listen without clamor — I make this oath to you. The ancients sought counsel from the white-haired elders, and so committed no errors." He made this oath to express his deep regret at not having heeded the advice of Jian Shu and Baili Xi, so that later generations might remember his fault. When gentlemen heard of it, all shed tears and said: "Ah! Duke Mu of Qin was so generous in his dealings with others that he ultimately reaped the reward of Meng Mingshi's success."

In the thirty-seventh year (623 BC), Qin used You Yu's strategies to attack the Rong king, annexing twelve states and expanding its territory by a thousand li, thereby achieving hegemony over the Western Rong. The Son of Heaven dispatched the Duke of Shao to congratulate Duke Mu with gifts of bronze drums.

In the thirty-ninth year (621 BC), Duke Mu died and was buried at Yong. One hundred and seventy-seven people followed him in death. Among them were three excellent ministers of the Ziyu clan — Yan Xi, Zhong Hang, and Zhen Hu. The people of Qin mourned them and composed the poem "Yellow Birds" in their memory.

Gentlemen commented: "Duke Mu of Qin expanded his territory and annexed states, subjugated mighty Jin in the east and achieved hegemony over the Rong in the west. Yet he never became leader of the feudal lords' covenants, and rightly so. In death he abandoned his people, seizing his finest ministers to follow him to the grave. When former kings died, they still bequeathed virtue and transmitted laws to posterity — how much worse, then, to rob the people of the good men and worthy ministers they loved? From this we can know that Qin would never again be able to campaign eastward."

Duke Mu had forty sons. His crown prince succeeded him; this was Duke Kang.

In the first year of Duke Kang's reign (620 BC), Duke Mu had died the previous year, and Duke Xiang of Jin had also died. Duke Xiang's brother Yong — born of a Qin mother — was living in Qin. Zhao Dun of Jin wished to enthrone him and sent Sui Hui to escort him. Qin dispatched troops to accompany Yong as far as Linghu. But Jin enthroned Duke Xiang's own son instead and turned to attack the Qin escort force. Qin's army was defeated, and Sui Hui fled to Qin.

In Duke Kang's second year, Qin attacked Jin and took Wucheng in retaliation for the Linghu affair. In the fourth year, Jin attacked Qin and took Shaoliang. In the sixth year, Qin attacked Jin and took Jima, then fought at Hequ and inflicted a major defeat on the Jin army. The Jin, concerned that Sui Hui's presence in Qin was causing trouble, sent Wei Chouxu to feign defection. Through a joint ruse they recovered Sui Hui, who returned to Jin.

Duke Kang reigned twelve years and died. His son Duke Gong succeeded.

In Duke Gong's second year (607 BC), Zhao Chuan of Jin assassinated his lord Duke Ling. In the third year, King Zhuang of Chu grew powerful, marched his armies north to the Luo River, and inquired about the Zhou cauldrons. Duke Gong reigned five years and died. His son Duke Huan succeeded.

In Duke Huan's third year (601 BC), Jin defeated one of Qin's generals. In the tenth year, King Zhuang of Chu subjugated Zheng and defeated Jin's army north of the Yellow River. At that time Chu was hegemon and convened the feudal lords in covenant-conferences. In the twenty-fourth year, Duke Li of Jin, newly enthroned, met Duke Huan of Qin in a covenant on opposite banks of the Yellow River. But upon returning home, Qin broke the covenant and conspired with the Di barbarians to attack Jin. In the twenty-sixth year, Jin led the feudal lords in an expedition against Qin. Qin's army was routed and fled; the allies pursued them as far as the Jing River before turning back.

Duke Huan reigned twenty-seven years and died. His son Duke Jing succeeded.

In Duke Jing's fourth year (573 BC), Luan Shu of Jin assassinated his lord Duke Li. In the fifteenth year, Qin rescued Zheng and defeated Jin's forces at Li. At that time Duke Dao of Jin was hegemon over the feudal lords.

In the eighteenth year, Duke Dao of Jin was powerful and repeatedly convened the feudal lords, leading them in campaigns against Qin. They defeated the Qin army. Qin's forces fled, and Jin pursued them across the Jing River as far as Yulin before turning back.

In the twenty-seventh year, Duke Jing visited Jin and made a covenant with Duke Ping, but subsequently broke it.

In the thirty-sixth year, Prince Wei of Chu assassinated his lord and took the throne himself; this was King Ling of Chu.

Duke Jing's half-brother Hou Zi Zhen was favored and wealthy. Someone slandered him, and fearing execution, he fled to Jin with a baggage train of a thousand chariots. Duke Ping of Jin said: "If Hou Zi is this wealthy, why did he flee?" Hou Zi replied: "The Duke of Qin is without principle. I feared execution and wished to wait for his successor before returning."

In the thirty-ninth year, King Ling of Chu, now powerful, convened the feudal lords at Shen, served as covenant-leader, and had Qing Feng of Qi executed.

Duke Jing reigned forty years and died. His son Duke Ai succeeded. Hou Zi then returned to Qin.

In Duke Ai's eighth year (529 BC), Prince Qi Ji of Chu assassinated King Ling and took the throne himself; this was King Ping.

In the eleventh year, King Ping of Chu sent a request to Qin for a woman to be the bride of Crown Prince Jian. When the woman arrived in Chu, the king found her beautiful and took her for himself.

In the fifteenth year, King Ping wished to execute Crown Prince Jian. Jian fled, and Wu Zixu escaped to Wu.

Jin's ducal house had grown weak while the six great ministerial families had grown powerful, and they intended to fight among themselves. For this reason, Qin and Jin did not attack each other for a long time.

In the thirty-first year (505 BC), King Helü of Wu and Wu Zixu attacked Chu. The King of Chu fled to Sui, and Wu occupied Ying, the Chu capital. The Chu minister Shen Baoxu came to Qin to beg for aid. For seven days he refused food and wept day and night. Qin thereupon dispatched five hundred war chariots to rescue Chu and defeated the Wu forces. When Wu withdrew, King Zhao of Chu was able to return to Ying.

Duke Ai reigned thirty-six years and died. His crown prince Yi Gong had died early and never took the throne. Yi Gong's son was enthroned instead; this was Duke Hui.

In the first year of Duke Hui's reign (500 BC), Confucius was serving as acting chancellor of Lu.

In the fifth year, the Zhonghang and Fan clans of Jin rebelled. Jin dispatched the Zhi clan and Zhao Jianzi to attack them. The Fan and Zhonghang clans were defeated and fled to Qi.

Duke Hui reigned ten years and died. His son Duke Dao succeeded.

In Duke Dao's second year (489 BC), the Qi minister Tian Qi assassinated his lord, the Young Ruler, and enthroned the latter's elder brother Yangsheng; this was Duke Dao of Qi.

In the sixth year, Wu defeated Qi's army. The people of Qi assassinated Duke Dao and enthroned his son Duke Jian.

In the ninth year (482 BC), Duke Ding of Jin and King Fuchai of Wu made a covenant and contended for precedence at Huangchi. Jin ultimately took precedence over Wu. Wu was powerful and domineered over the Central States.

In the twelfth year, Tian Chang of Qi assassinated Duke Jian and enthroned his brother Duke Ping, with Tian Chang serving as chancellor.

In the thirteenth year, Chu destroyed Chen.

Duke Dao reigned fourteen years and died. His son Duke Li Gong succeeded. Confucius died in Duke Dao's twelfth year (479 BC).

In the second year of Duke Li Gong's reign (475 BC), envoys from Shu came bearing gifts.

In the sixteenth year, Qin fortified the banks of the Yellow River. With twenty thousand troops, Qin attacked the Dali Rong and captured their royal city.

In the twenty-first year, Qin established Pinyang as a county for the first time. Jin took Wucheng.

In the twenty-fourth year (453 BC), Jin fell into disorder. Zhi Bo was killed, and his territory was divided among Zhao, Han, and Wei.

In the twenty-fifth year, Zhi Kai and people from his fief fled to Qin.

In the thirty-third year, Qin attacked the Yiqu Rong and captured their king.

In the thirty-fourth year, there was a solar eclipse. Duke Li Gong died, and his son Duke Zao succeeded.

In Duke Zao's second year (441 BC), Nanzheng rebelled. In the thirteenth year, the Yiqu Rong invaded and reached the south bank of the Wei River. In the fourteenth year, Duke Zao died, and his younger brother Duke Huai was enthroned.

In Duke Huai's fourth year (425 BC), the Senior Chamberlain Chao and other grandees besieged Duke Huai. Duke Huai killed himself. Duke Huai's crown prince, known as Zhao Zi, had died young. The grandees therefore enthroned Zhao Zi's son; this was Duke Ling. Duke Ling was Duke Huai's grandson.

In Duke Ling's sixth year (419 BC), Jin fortified Shaoliang, and Qin attacked it. In the thirteenth year, Qin fortified Jigu. Duke Ling died. His son, the future Duke Xian, was not enthroned; instead, Duke Ling's uncle Dao Zi was installed. This was Duke Jian. Duke Jian was Zhao Zi's brother and a son of Duke Huai.

In Duke Jian's sixth year (409 BC), officials were for the first time ordered to wear swords. Qin fortified the Luo River banks and built the walls of Chongquan. In the sixteenth year, Duke Jian died, and his son Duke Hui succeeded.

In Duke Hui's twelfth year (388 BC), his son Chu Zi was born. In the thirteenth year, Qin attacked Shu and took Nanzheng. Duke Hui died, and Chu Zi was enthroned.

In Chu Zi's second year (385 BC), the Senior Chamberlain Gai welcomed Duke Ling's son, Duke Xian, from the west bank of the Yellow River and enthroned him. Chu Zi and his mother were killed and their bodies sunk beside a deep pool.

Because Qin had repeatedly changed its ruler in this period, with ruler and ministers in mutual discord, Jin recovered its strength and seized Qin's territory west of the Yellow River.

In the first year of Duke Xian's reign (384 BC), the practice of followers dying with the ruler was abolished.

In the second year, Qin built the fortified city of Liyang and made it the capital.

In the fourth year, on the gengyin day of the first month (381 BC), the future Duke Xiao was born.

In the eleventh year, the Grand Astrologer Dan of Zhou had an audience with Duke Xian and said: "Zhou and Qin were once united, then separated. After five hundred years of separation they will reunite, and seventeen years after reuniting, a hegemon-king will arise."

In the sixteenth year, peach trees bloomed in winter. In the eighteenth year, it rained metal at Liyang.

In the twenty-first year (364 BC), Qin fought Jin at Shimen and took sixty thousand heads. The Son of Heaven sent congratulations along with a ceremonial apron.

In the twenty-third year, Qin fought Wei at Shaoliang and captured their general Gongsun Cuo.

In the twenty-fourth year, Duke Xian died. His son Duke Xiao succeeded at the age of twenty-one.

In the first year of Duke Xiao's reign (361 BC), east of the mountains and the Yellow River there were six powerful states: Qi under King Wei, Chu under King Xuan, Wei under King Hui, Yan under Marquis Dao, Han under Marquis Ai, and Zhao under Marquis Cheng. Between the Huai and Si rivers there were more than ten small states. Chu and Wei shared borders with Qin. Wei had built a long wall from Zheng along the Luo River northward and controlled Shangjun. Chu held Hanzhong and to the south possessed Ba and Qianzhong. The Zhou royal house was feeble; the feudal lords governed by force and competed to annex one another. Qin was isolated in the far west of Yongzhou, excluded from the covenants and conferences of the Central States lords, who treated it as a barbarian country.

Duke Xiao therefore distributed bounties, supported orphans and widows, recruited warriors, and clarified rewards for merit. He issued a decree throughout the state:

"In former times, our ancestor Duke Mu, starting from the land between Qi and Yong, cultivated virtue and exercised military power. Eastward he pacified Jin's disorders, making the Yellow River his boundary. Westward he achieved hegemony over the Rong and Di, expanding our territory by a thousand li. The Son of Heaven bestowed the title of hegemon, and all the feudal lords offered congratulations — he opened a magnificent enterprise for posterity. But then came the troubles under Dukes Li, Zao, Jian, and Chu Zi: the state was consumed by internal disorder and had no leisure for external affairs. The Three Jin states attacked and seized our forefathers' lands west of the Yellow River. No humiliation for the feudal lords to inflict on Qin could be greater than this. When Duke Xian came to the throne, he pacified the borders, moved the capital to Liyang, and intended to campaign eastward to recover Duke Mu's former territory and restore Duke Mu's policies. I think constantly of my forefathers' purpose, and the pain never leaves my heart. Any guest or minister who can devise an extraordinary plan to strengthen Qin — I shall grant him high office and share my lands with him."

He then sent armies east to besiege Shan and west to kill the Huan king of the Rong.

Wei Yang heard that this decree had been issued and traveled west into Qin. Through the eunuch Jing Jian, he obtained an audience with Duke Xiao.

In the second year, the Son of Heaven sent sacrificial meat to Qin.

In the third year (359 BC), Wei Yang persuaded Duke Xiao to reform the laws and revise punishments: domestically, the state should concentrate on agriculture; externally, it should use rewards and punishments to encourage soldiers to fight to the death. Duke Xiao approved. Gan Long, Du Zhi, and others opposed the reforms and debated against them. In the end, Yang's laws were adopted. The common people found them harsh at first, but after three years they had grown accustomed to them. Wei Yang was appointed Left Senior Chamberlain. The details are in the account of Lord Shang.

In the seventh year, Duke Xiao met with King Hui of Wei at Duping. In the eighth year, Qin fought Wei at Yuanli and won. In the tenth year (352 BC), Wei Yang was appointed Grand Master of Works and led armies to besiege Wei's capital Anyi, which surrendered.

In the twelfth year (350 BC), Qin built Xianyang, erected the Ji Gate towers, and moved the capital there. The small villages and hamlets were consolidated into large counties, each with a county magistrate — forty-one counties in all. The field boundaries were reorganized by abolishing the old footpaths between plots. Qin's eastern territory now extended beyond the Luo River.

In the fourteenth year, Qin levied its first regular tax assessment. In the nineteenth year, the Son of Heaven bestowed the title of hegemon. In the twentieth year, all the feudal lords offered congratulations. Qin sent Prince Shaoguan to lead troops in a joint feudal lords' assembly at Fengze and to pay court to the Son of Heaven.

In the twenty-first year (341 BC), Qi defeated Wei at Maling.

In the twenty-second year, Wei Yang attacked Wei and captured Prince Ang of Wei. Yang was enfeoffed as a ranked marquis with the title Lord of Shang.

In the twenty-fourth year, Qin fought Wei at Yanmen and captured their general Wei Cuo.

Duke Xiao died (338 BC), and his son, the Lord of Huiwen, succeeded. That same year, Wei Yang was executed.

When Yang first implemented the laws in Qin, the laws were not being obeyed; the crown prince had violated the prohibitions. Yang said: "The reason the laws are not being obeyed begins with the nobility. If the ruler truly wishes to enforce the laws, he must start with the crown prince. Since the crown prince cannot be tattooed, tattoo his tutors instead." From that point on the laws were strictly enforced and the people of Qin were well governed.

But when Duke Xiao died and the crown prince took the throne, many members of the royal clan bore grudges against Yang. Yang fled, but was accused of rebellion. He was ultimately torn apart by chariots and his remains displayed throughout Qin as a warning.

In the first year of King Huiwen's reign (337 BC), envoys from Chu, Han, Zhao, and Shu came to pay court. In the second year, the Son of Heaven sent congratulations. In the third year, the king performed the capping ceremony. In the fourth year, the Son of Heaven sent sacrificial meat from the Wen and Wu temple offerings. Qi and Wei both adopted the title of king.

In the fifth year, Xihou of Yinjin was appointed Grand Master of Works. In the sixth year, Wei ceded Yinjin, which was renamed Ningqin. In the seventh year, Prince Ang fought Wei, capturing their general Long Jia and taking eighty thousand heads. In the eighth year (330 BC), Wei ceded its territory west of the Yellow River.

In the ninth year, Qin crossed the Yellow River and took Fenyin and Pishi. The king met King Hui of Wei at Ying. Qin besieged Jiao, which surrendered. In the tenth year (328 BC), Zhang Yi became chancellor of Qin. Wei ceded fifteen counties of Shangjun. In the eleventh year, Qin established the Yiqu territory as a county. Jiao and Quwo were returned to Wei. The lord of Yiqu submitted as a vassal. Shaoliang was renamed Xiayang. In the twelfth year, the La festival was held for the first time. In the thirteenth year, on the wuwu day of the fourth month, the lord of Wei adopted the title of king; Han likewise became a kingdom. Zhang Yi was sent to attack and take Shan, then its population was given to Wei.

In the fourteenth year, the era count was reset to year one (324 BC). In the second year, Zhang Yi met with senior ministers of Qi and Chu at Niesang. In the third year, the crown princes of Han and Wei came to pay court. Zhang Yi went to serve as chancellor of Wei.

In the fifth year, the king traveled north to the Yellow River bend. In the seventh year (318 BC), Yue Chi served as Qin's chancellor. Han, Zhao, Wei, Yan, and Qi led the Xiongnu in a joint attack on Qin. Qin dispatched Senior Chamberlain Ji to fight them at Xiuyu. He captured their general Shen Cha, defeated Prince Ke of Zhao and Crown Prince Huan of Han, and took eighty-two thousand heads.

In the eighth year, Zhang Yi returned as chancellor of Qin. In the ninth year (316 BC), Sima Cuo conquered Shu and destroyed it. Qin also took Zhongdu and Xiyang from Zhao.

In the tenth year, Crown Prince Cang of Han came as a hostage. Qin took Shizhang from Han, defeated the Zhao general Ni, and captured twenty-five Yiqu cities.

In the eleventh year, Zhangli Ji attacked Wei's Jiao and took it. Qin defeated Han at Anmen, taking ten thousand heads; their general Xihou fled. Prince Tong was enfeoffed in Shu. The lord of Yan abdicated in favor of his minister Zi Zhi.

In the twelfth year, the king met King Hui of Wei at Linjin. Senior Chamberlain Ji attacked Zhao and captured the Zhao general Zhuang. Zhang You served as chancellor of Chu.

In the thirteenth year (312 BC), Senior Chamberlain Zhang struck Chu at Danyang, capturing their general Qu Gai and taking eighty thousand heads. He then attacked Chu's Hanzhong, seizing six hundred li of territory and establishing Hanzhong Commandery. When Chu besieged Yongshi, Qin sent Senior Chamberlain Ji to aid Han while simultaneously attacking Qi to the east, and dispatched Dao Man to aid Wei in attacking Yan.

In the fourteenth year, Qin attacked Chu and took Zhaoling. Dan and Li submitted. The chancellor of Shu, Zhuang, killed the Marquis of Shu and surrendered.

King Huiwen died (311 BC). His son King Wu succeeded. Han, Wei, Qi, Chu, and Yue all came to pay homage.

In the first year of King Wu's reign (310 BC), he met King Hui of Wei at Linjin. The Shu chancellor Zhuang was executed. Zhang Yi and Wei Zhang were both expelled eastward to Wei. Qin attacked the Yiqu, Dan, and Li.

In the second year, the office of chancellor was established for the first time. Zhangli Ji and Gan Mao were appointed left and right chancellors. Zhang You died in Wei.

In the third year, King Wu met King Xiang of Han outside Linjin. Nan Gong Jie died, and Zhangli Ji served as chancellor of Han. King Wu said to Gan Mao: "If I could drive my chariot through Sanchuan and gaze upon the Zhou royal domain, I would die without regret." That autumn, he sent Gan Mao and Senior Chamberlain Feng to attack Yiyang.

In the fourth year (307 BC), Yiyang fell, with sixty thousand heads taken. Qin crossed the river and fortified Wusui. The crown prince of Wei came to pay court.

King Wu was physically powerful and fond of contests of strength. The strongmen Ren Bi, Wu Huo, and Meng Yue all rose to high office. The king competed with Meng Yue in lifting a bronze cauldron and snapped his kneecap. In the eighth month, King Wu died. Meng Yue's entire clan was executed.

King Wu had taken a Wei woman as his queen, but had no sons. His half-brother was enthroned; this was King Zhaoxiang. King Zhaoxiang's mother was a Chu woman surnamed Xiu, known as Queen Dowager Xuan. When King Wu died, King Zhaoxiang was serving as a hostage in Yan. The people of Yan escorted him home, and he was enthroned.

In the first year of King Zhaoxiang's reign (306 BC), Lord Yan Ji served as chancellor. Gan Mao was expelled to Wei.

In the second year, a comet appeared. Senior Chamberlain Zhuang, along with grandees, feudal lords' agents, and royal princes, attempted a revolt. All were executed. Queen Huiwen also died an unnatural death. The late King Wu's queen was sent back to Wei.

In the third year, the king performed the capping ceremony. He met King Huai of Chu at Huangji and ceded Shangyong to Chu.

In the fourth year, Qin took Puban. A comet appeared. In the fifth year, the King of Wei came to pay court at Yingting; Puban was returned to Wei. In the sixth year, the Marquis of Shu, Hui, rebelled; Sima Cuo pacified Shu. Senior Chamberlain Huan attacked Chu and took twenty thousand heads. The Lord of Jingyang was sent as a hostage to Qi. A solar eclipse turned day into darkness.

In the seventh year, Qin took Xincheng. Zhangli Zi died. In the eighth year, General Mi Rong attacked Chu and took Xinshi. Qi sent Zhang Zi, Wei sent Gongsun Xi, and Han sent Bao Yuan to jointly attack Chu's Fangcheng, taking Tangmei. Zhao destroyed Zhongshan; its lord fled and eventually died in Qi. Prince Jin of Wei and Prince Zhang of Han were established as minor lords.

In the ninth year, Lord Mengchang of Xue, Wen, came to serve as chancellor of Qin. Huan attacked Chu, taking eight cities and killing their general Jing Kuai.

In the tenth year (299 BC), King Huai of Chu came to Qin for an audience. Qin detained him. Lord Mengchang was dismissed after a bribery scandal. Lou Huan became chancellor.

In the eleventh year, Qi, Han, Wei, Zhao, Song, and Zhongshan — five states — jointly attacked Qin, reaching Yanshi before turning back. Qin made peace with Han and Wei, ceding territory north of the Yellow River and Fengling. A comet appeared. King Huai of Chu fled to Zhao, but Zhao refused to receive him and sent him back to Qin, where he soon died. His body was returned to Chu for burial.

In the twelfth year, Lou Huan was dismissed. The Marquis of Rang, Wei Ran, became chancellor. Qin gave Chu fifty thousand shi of grain.

In the thirteenth year (294 BC), Xiang Shou attacked Han and took Wushi. Bai Qi, holding the rank of Left Superintendent, attacked Xincheng. The Fifth-Rank Noble Li fled to Wei. Ren Bi was appointed governor of Hanzhong.

In the fourteenth year (293 BC), Bai Qi attacked Han and Wei at Yique, taking two hundred and forty thousand heads, capturing Gongsun Xi, and seizing five cities.

In the fifteenth year, Bai Qi, now Grand Master of Works, attacked Wei and took Yuan, then returned it. He attacked Chu and took Wan.

In the sixteenth year, the Left Superintendent Cuo took Zhi and Deng. Wei Ran was dismissed. Prince Shi was enfeoffed at Wan, Prince Kui at Deng, and Wei Ran at Tao, all as minor lords.

In the seventeenth year, the Lord of Chengyang came to pay court, as did the Lord of Eastern Zhou. Qin redesignated Yuan as Puban and Pishi. The king went to Yiyang.

In the eighteenth year, Cuo attacked Yuan and Heyong, breaking the bridge to take them.

In the nineteenth year (288 BC), the king assumed the title of Western Emperor; Qi became the Eastern Emperor. Both soon abandoned these titles. Lü Li came to submit to Qin. Qi destroyed Song; the King of Song was in Wei and died at Wen. Ren Bi died.

In the twentieth year, the king traveled to Hanzhong, then to Shangjun and the northern bend of the Yellow River.

In the twenty-first year (286 BC), Cuo attacked Wei's Henei region. Wei surrendered Anyi. Qin removed its population, recruited settlers for Hedong with grants of rank, and pardoned convicts to relocate them there. The Lord of Jingyang was enfeoffed at Wan.

In the twenty-second year, Meng Wu attacked Qi. Hedong was organized into nine counties. The king met the King of Chu at Wan and the King of Zhao at Zhongyang.

In the twenty-third year (284 BC), the commandant Si Li joined the Three Jin states and Yan in attacking Qi, defeating them west of the Ji River. The king met the King of Wei at Yiyang and the King of Han at Xincheng.

In the twenty-fourth year, the king met the King of Chu at Yan and again at Rang. Qin took Wei's Ancheng and advanced to Daliang, but Yan and Zhao came to Wei's rescue and Qin withdrew. Wei Ran was dismissed as chancellor.

In the twenty-fifth year, Qin took two cities from Zhao. The king met the King of Han at Xincheng and the King of Wei at Xinmingyi.

In the twenty-sixth year, pardoned convicts were relocated to Rang. The Marquis of Rang, Wei Ran, was reinstated as chancellor.

In the twenty-seventh year (280 BC), Cuo attacked Chu. Pardoned convicts were relocated to Nanyang. Bai Qi attacked Zhao and took Dai Guanglang city. Sima Cuo was also sent to mobilize forces from Longxi and, using Shu as a base, attacked Chu's Qianzhong and captured it.

In the twenty-eighth year, Bai Qi, Grand Master of Works, attacked Chu and took Yan and Deng. Pardoned convicts were relocated there.

In the twenty-ninth year (278 BC), Bai Qi attacked Chu and captured Ying, which became Nan Commandery. The King of Chu fled. The Lord of Zhou came to pay court. The king met the King of Chu at Xiangling. Bai Qi was granted the title Lord of Wuan.

In the thirtieth year, the governor of Shu, Ruo, attacked Chu and took Wu Commandery. The territory south of the Yangtze became Qianzhong Commandery.

In the thirty-first year, Bai Qi attacked Wei and took two cities. Chu recaptured Qin's territory south of the Yangtze.

In the thirty-second year, Chancellor Wei Ran, the Marquis of Rang, attacked Wei. He reached Daliang, defeated Bao Yuan, took forty thousand heads — Yuan fled — and Wei ceded three counties for peace.

In the thirty-third year (274 BC), the guest minister Hu attacked Wei's Juan, Caiyang, and Changshe, and took them. He struck Mang Mao at Huayang and destroyed his force, taking a hundred and fifty thousand heads. Wei ceded Nanyang for peace.

In the thirty-fourth year, Qin merged the Shangyong territory of Wei, Han, and its own holdings into a single commandery. Freed bondsmen from Nanyang were resettled there.

In the thirty-fifth year, Qin aided Han, Wei, and Chu in attacking Yan. Nanyang Commandery was formally established.

In the thirty-sixth year (271 BC), the guest minister Zao attacked Qi and took Gang and Shou, which were given to the Marquis of Rang.

In the thirty-eighth year, the Middle Superintendent Hu attacked Zhao's Eyu but could not take it.

In the fortieth year, Crown Prince Dao died in Wei. His body was returned for burial at Zhiyang.

In the forty-first year, in summer, Qin attacked Wei and took Xingqiu and Huai.

In the forty-second year (265 BC), Lord Anguo was made crown prince. In the tenth month, Queen Dowager Xuan died and was buried at Zhiyang on Mount Li. In the ninth month, the Marquis of Rang was expelled to his fief at Tao.

In the forty-third year, Lord Wuan Bai Qi attacked Han and took nine cities, with fifty thousand heads.

In the forty-fourth year, Qin attacked southern Han and took it.

In the forty-fifth year, the Fifth-Rank Noble Ben attacked Han and took ten cities. The Lord of Yeyang, Kui, was expelled to his fief but died before arriving.

In the forty-seventh year (260 BC), Qin attacked Han's Shangdang. Shangdang surrendered to Zhao instead. Qin therefore attacked Zhao, and Zhao sent armies to resist. The two sides faced off. Qin dispatched Lord Wuan Bai Qi to command. He inflicted a devastating defeat on Zhao at Changping and slaughtered the entire force of over four hundred thousand.

In the forty-eighth year, in the tenth month, Han surrendered Yuanyong. The Qin army was divided into three corps. Lord Wuan returned home. Wang He led an attack on Zhao's Pilao and took it. Sima Geng went north to pacify Taiyuan, securing all of Han's Shangdang. In the first month, the armies were stood down and returned to garrisoning Shangdang. In the tenth month, the Fifth-Rank Noble Ling attacked Zhao's capital Handan.

In the forty-ninth year, in the first month, additional troops were sent to reinforce Ling. Ling fought without success and was dismissed; Wang He took over command. In the tenth month, General Zhang Tang attacked Wei. Because the garrison commander Cai Wei Juan Bu refused to hold his position, he was recalled and executed.

In the fiftieth year (257 BC), in the tenth month, Lord Wuan Bai Qi was found guilty, stripped of his titles, reduced to the rank of common soldier, and exiled to Yinmi. Zhang Tang attacked Zheng and took it. In the twelfth month, additional troops were deployed beside Fen city. Lord Wuan Bai Qi was found guilty again and put to death.

Wang He attacked Handan but could not take it. He withdrew and fell back to the army at Fen. After two more months of fighting against Jin and Chu relief forces, Qin took six thousand heads, but twenty thousand Jin and Chu soldiers drowned in the river. Qin attacked Fen city, then joined with Zhang Tang to take Ningxinzhong, which was renamed Anyang. Qin built its first bridge across the Yellow River.

In the fifty-first year (256 BC), General Jiu attacked Han, taking Yangcheng and Fushu with forty thousand heads. He attacked Zhao, taking over twenty counties with ninety thousand killed or captured.

The Lord of Western Zhou turned against Qin and joined the feudal lords in a Vertical Alliance pact. They planned to concentrate the realm's best troops, march through Yique, and attack Qin, blocking Qin's access to Yangcheng. Qin thereupon sent General Jiu to attack Western Zhou. The Lord of Western Zhou came to surrender in person, kowtowed, and accepted his guilt. He surrendered all thirty-six of his cities and thirty thousand people. The King of Qin accepted the surrender and allowed the lord to return to Zhou.

In the fifty-second year (255 BC), Zhou's people fled eastward. The Nine Cauldrons — the ritual vessels of sovereignty — entered Qin. Zhou had fallen.

In the fifty-third year, envoys from all the states came to pay homage. Wei arrived last; Qin sent Jiu to punish Wei by taking Wucheng. The King of Han came to pay court in person. Wei placed its state at Qin's disposal and obeyed its commands.

In the fifty-fourth year, the king performed the suburban sacrifice to the Supreme Deity at Yong.

In the fifty-sixth year (251 BC), in autumn, King Zhaoxiang died. His son King Xiaowen succeeded. The Lady Tang of the Eighth Rank was honored as Queen Dowager Tang, and her remains were interred alongside the former king. The King of Han came in mourning garments to offer condolences. All the feudal lords sent their generals and chancellors to attend the funeral rites.

In the first year of King Xiaowen's reign (250 BC), he pardoned convicts, rewarded the descendants of meritorious ministers of former reigns, treated his kinsmen generously, and opened the royal parks to the people.

King Xiaowen completed the mourning period and formally ascended the throne on the jihai day of the tenth month. Three days later, on the xinchou day, he died. His son King Zhuangxiang succeeded.

In the first year of King Zhuangxiang's reign (249 BC), he issued a general amnesty, rewarded descendants of meritorious ministers, bestowed favor on the royal kinsmen, and distributed bounties to the common people.

The Lord of Eastern Zhou conspired with the feudal lords against Qin. Qin sent its chancellor Lü Buwei to destroy him and annexed his entire territory. However, Qin did not extinguish the Zhou sacrifices: it granted the Lord of Zhou land at Yangren so that he could maintain his ancestral rites.

Qin sent Meng Ao to attack Han. Han surrendered Chenggao and Gong. Qin's border now reached Daliang. Sanchuan Commandery was established for the first time.

In the second year, Meng Ao attacked Zhao and pacified Taiyuan.

In the third year (247 BC), Meng Ao attacked Wei's Gaodu and Ji and took them. He attacked Zhao's Yuci, Xincheng, and Langmeng, taking thirty-seven cities. In the fourth month there was a solar eclipse. Wang He attacked Shangdang. Taiyuan Commandery was formally established.

The Wei general Lord Xinling led the armies of five states in attacking Qin. Qin was pushed back beyond the Yellow River. Meng Ao was defeated and withdrew.

In the fifth month, on the bingwu day, King Zhuangxiang died. His son Zheng succeeded. This was the First Emperor of Qin.

King Zheng of Qin reigned twenty-six years before unifying All-Under-Heaven, dividing it into thirty-six commanderies, and proclaiming himself First Emperor (221 BC).

The First Emperor died at the age of fifty-one (210 BC). His son Hu Hai succeeded; this was the Second Emperor. In the third year of the Second Emperor's reign (207 BC), the former feudal lords rose in rebellion against Qin on all sides. Zhao Gao murdered the Second Emperor and enthroned Zi Ying. Zi Ying reigned barely a month before the rebel lords executed him, and Qin was destroyed.

The full account is in the Annals of the First Emperor.

The Grand Historian comments:

The ancestors of Qin bore the surname Ying. In later generations, as branches were enfeoffed, they took their states' names as surnames: thus there arose the Xu, Tan, Ju, Zhongli, Yunyan, Tuqiu, Jiangliang, Huang, Jiang, Xiuyu, Baiming, Feilian, and Qin clans. However, because their ancestor Zao Fu had been enfeoffed at the city of Zhao, the Qin ruling house used Zhao as their clan name.

Bo Yi aided Shun — the dark-pennanted banner was his standard. Fei Lian served Tyrant Zhou — a stone sarcophagus was built for him. Zao Fu excelled at driving — he was enfeoffed at the city of Zhao. Fei Zi bred horses — and earned the title "Qin of the Ying." Rites and music, archery and charioteering — at the Western Marches their fame resounded. Duke Xiang rescued Zhou — and first received the mandate as a feudal state. Golden shrines to the White Emperor, the dragon-destiny of Water's virtue. Auspicious omens answered with the Treasure of Chen; the monstrous creature of Feng was destroyed. Li Xi brought hegemony; Wei Yang imposed harsh rule. What followed was annexation and conquest, culminating at last in monstrous tyranny.