項羽本紀

Xiang Ji was a native of Xiaxiang. His courtesy name was Yu. He was twenty-four when the uprising began. His uncle Xiang Liang was the son of Xiang Yan, the Chu general killed by the Qin general Wang Jian. The Xiang clan had served as Chu generals for generations. They held a fief at Xiang, and so took Xiang as their surname.

As a boy, Xiang Ji studied writing but gave it up. He took up swordsmanship but gave that up too. Xiang Liang was furious. Ji said: "Writing is only good for recording names. Swordsmanship is one man's skill — not worth learning. I want to learn the skill that defeats ten thousand men." At this, Xiang Liang taught him the art of war. Ji was overjoyed. He grasped the broad principles, then refused to finish the course.

Xiang Liang once faced an arrest warrant from Liyang. He asked the prison clerk Cao Jiu of Qi to write a letter to the Liyang prison clerk Sima Xin, and by this connection the matter was dropped. Later, Xiang Liang killed a man, and he and Ji fled to the Wu region to escape the blood feud. All the worthy gentlemen and officials of Wu deferred to Xiang Liang. Whenever there was a major corvée levy or funeral in Wu, Xiang Liang took charge of the arrangements, secretly using the art of war to organize the guests and young men — and so came to know each one's abilities.

When the First Emperor toured Kuaiji and crossed the Zhe River, Liang and Ji watched together. Ji said: "That man — I could take his place." Liang clapped a hand over his mouth: "Don't talk like that — it's death for the whole clan!" But from that moment, Liang recognized something extraordinary in Ji. Ji stood over eight chi tall, strong enough to lift a bronze tripod, his talent and spirit surpassing all around him. Even the young men of Wu were already in awe of him.

In the seventh month of the first year of the Second Emperor, Chen She and his followers rose up at Daze. In the ninth month, the governor of Kuaiji, Yin Tong, said to Xiang Liang: "All the lands west of the Yangtze are in revolt. This is Heaven's time to destroy Qin. I have heard that he who strikes first controls others; he who strikes second is controlled. I intend to raise troops and appoint you and Huan Chu as commanders."

At that time, Huan Chu was a fugitive hiding in the marshes. Liang said: "Huan Chu is a fugitive. No one knows where he is — only Ji knows." Liang went out and instructed Ji to wait outside with his sword ready. He went back in, sat down with the governor, and said: "Please summon Ji and have him receive orders to find Huan Chu." The governor agreed.

Liang called Ji in. After a moment, Liang signaled Ji with his eyes: "Now!" Ji drew his sword and cut off the governor's head. Xiang Liang seized the head and put on the governor's seal and sash. The household staff were thrown into panic. Ji cut down several dozen of them. The entire office fell prostrate in terror; none dared rise.

Liang then summoned the local strongmen and officials he knew and explained that they were launching a great undertaking. He raised the troops of Wu. He sent men to take the surrounding districts and assembled eight thousand elite soldiers. Liang appointed the local leaders of Wu as colonels, lieutenants, and marshals. One man who received no appointment came to complain. Liang said: "At a certain funeral, I put you in charge of a certain task, and you could not handle it. That is why I have not given you a position." After that, everyone accepted his authority. Xiang Liang became governor of Kuaiji, Ji became his deputy general, and they pacified the surrounding districts.

Zhao Ping of Guangling had been campaigning on behalf of the King of Chen to take Guangling, but had not succeeded. When he heard that the King of Chen had been defeated and that Qin troops were approaching, he crossed the Yangtze and, forging an order from the King of Chen, appointed Xiang Liang as Grand Pillar of State of Chu. He said: "The east is pacified. Move your troops west at once to strike Qin."

Xiang Liang then crossed the Yangtze westward with his eight thousand men. He heard that Chen Ying had already taken Dongyang and sent envoys to propose an alliance for the westward campaign. Chen Ying had been a clerk in the Dongyang county office, known locally as a man of integrity and prudence, respected as an elder. The young men of Dongyang had killed their magistrate, gathered several thousand followers, and wanted to choose a leader. Finding no one suitable, they asked Chen Ying. Ying declined, but they forced the position on him. Twenty thousand people from the county rallied to him. The young men wanted to make Ying king outright and raised a special force with dark headbands.

Chen Ying's mother said to him: "Since I married into your family, I have never heard of any ancestor of yours who held high rank. Now you have suddenly gained a great name — this is unlucky. Better to serve under someone. If things go well, you can still be enfeoffed as a marquis. If things go badly, it will be easier to escape, because you will not be the one everyone knows by name." Ying therefore did not dare call himself king. He told his officers: "The Xiang clan have been a family of generals for generations, famous throughout Chu. To launch a great undertaking, the commander must be the right man — anything less will not do. Let us attach ourselves to this noble house, and the fall of Qin is certain."

The assembled troops accepted this reasoning and pledged their forces to Xiang Liang. Xiang Liang crossed the Huai River. Qing Bu and General Pu also brought their troops under his command. In all, they numbered sixty or seventy thousand men and encamped at Xiapi.

At this time, Qin Jia had already set up Jing Ju as King of Chu and was camped east of Pengcheng, intending to block Xiang Liang. Xiang Liang told his officers: "The King of Chen was first to raise the standard. His campaigns met with setbacks, and no one knows where he is. Now Qin Jia has betrayed the King of Chen and set up Jing Ju — this is rebellion against the rightful order." He advanced and attacked Qin Jia. Qin Jia's army was routed and fled; Xiang Liang pursued them to Huling. Qin Jia turned and fought for one day, then was killed. His army surrendered. Jing Ju fled and died in the territory of Liang.

Having absorbed Qin Jia's forces, Xiang Liang camped at Huling and prepared to march west. Zhang Han's army reached Li. Xiang Liang sent his subordinate commanders Zhu Jishi and Lord Yu Fan to engage them. Lord Yu Fan was killed. Zhu Jishi's army was defeated, and he fled to Huling. Xiang Liang entered Xue and executed Zhu Jishi.

Earlier, Xiang Liang had sent Xiang Yu to attack Xiangcheng separately. Xiangcheng held out stubbornly. When it finally fell, Xiang Yu buried the entire garrison alive. He returned to report to Xiang Liang.

When Xiang Liang confirmed that the King of Chen was dead, he summoned all his separate commanders to a council of war at Xue. At this time, the Duke of Pei had also risen in revolt at Pei, and he came to the meeting.

Fan Zeng, a man of Juchao, seventy years old, who had lived in retirement and was known for his unconventional strategies, came to advise Xiang Liang: "Chen Sheng's failure was inevitable. When Qin destroyed the six states, Chu was the least guilty. Ever since King Huai entered Qin and never returned, the people of Chu have mourned him to this day. That is why the Chu sage Nangong said: 'Even if Chu is reduced to three households, it is Chu that will destroy Qin.' Now Chen Sheng was first to rise, but he set himself up as king instead of restoring the Chu royal line — his cause could not last. You, my lord, have risen from east of the Yangtze, and the swarming Chu commanders compete to join you because your family have been Chu generals for generations and they believe you can restore the Chu succession."

Xiang Liang agreed. He searched among the common people for a grandson of King Huai of Chu, found one named Xin — a shepherd — and enthroned him as King Huai of Chu, in accordance with the people's hopes. Chen Ying was made Grand Pillar of State and given five counties. He and King Huai established their capital at Xutai. Xiang Liang styled himself Lord Wuxin.

After several months, Xiang Liang led his forces to attack Kangfu. Together with Qi generals Tian Rong and Sima Longju, he rescued Dong'e and crushed the Qin army there. Tian Rong immediately pulled his forces back to Qi to drive out King Jia. Jia fled to Chu. His chancellor Tian Jiao fled to Zhao. Jiao's brother Tian Jian, a former Qi general, stayed in Zhao and dared not return. Tian Rong enthroned Tian Dan's son Shi as King of Qi.

Having broken the Qin forces below Dong'e, Xiang Liang pursued them. He sent repeated messages urging Qi to send troops for a joint westward campaign. Tian Rong replied: "Kill Tian Jia for me, and have Zhao kill Tian Jiao and Tian Jian — then I will send troops." Xiang Liang said: "Tian Jia is the king of an allied state who came to me in desperation. I cannot bear to kill him." Zhao likewise refused to kill Tian Jiao and Tian Jian to buy Qi's favor. So Qi refused to send troops to aid Chu.

Xiang Liang sent the Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu separately to attack Chengyang, which they sacked. Moving west, they routed a Qin army east of Puyang. The Qin forces withdrew into Puyang. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu then attacked Dingtao but failed to take it. They moved west, raiding as far as Yongqiu, where they crushed a Qin army and killed Li You. They returned to attack Waihuang but failed to take it either.

Since Dong'e, Xiang Liang had marched west to Dingtao and beaten the Qin twice. Xiang Yu and the others had killed Li You. They grew contemptuous of Qin, and arrogance showed on their faces. Song Yi remonstrated with Xiang Liang: "A commander who grows arrogant after victory and whose soldiers grow slack will meet defeat. The troops are already somewhat slack. Qin's forces grow stronger by the day. I fear for you, my lord." Xiang Liang did not listen. He sent Song Yi as envoy to Qi.

On the road, Song Yi met the Qi envoy Lord Gaoling Xian, and asked: "Are you going to see Lord Wuxin?" "I am," he replied. Song Yi said: "In my judgment, Lord Wuxin's army will certainly be defeated. If you travel slowly, you will escape death. If you travel quickly, you will walk into disaster."

Qin indeed mobilized all available forces to reinforce Zhang Han. He struck the Chu army and destroyed it at Dingtao. Xiang Liang was killed. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu abandoned Waihuang and attacked Chenliu, but it held firm. They conferred: "Xiang Liang's army is destroyed. The soldiers are frightened." They joined forces with Lü Chen's army and withdrew east. Lü Chen camped east of Pengcheng, Xiang Yu west of Pengcheng, and the Duke of Pei at Dang.

Having destroyed Xiang Liang's army, Zhang Han concluded that the Chu forces were no longer a threat. He crossed the Yellow River and attacked Zhao, inflicting a devastating defeat. At this time, Zhao Xie was king, Chen Yu was general, and Zhang Er was chancellor. All of them fled into the city of Julu. Zhang Han ordered Wang Li and She Jian to besiege Julu. Zhang Han himself camped to the south and built a walled supply corridor to deliver grain to the besiegers. Chen Yu, commanding several tens of thousands of troops, camped north of Julu — these were the so-called "Army North of the River."

The Chu army had been shattered at Dingtao. King Huai, alarmed, moved from Xutai to Pengcheng, merged Xiang Yu's and Lü Chen's armies, and took personal command. He appointed Lü Chen as Minister of Works and Lü Chen's father Lü Qing as Chief Minister. The Duke of Pei was made administrator of Dang Commandery, enfeoffed as Lord Wu'an, and given command of the Dang garrison troops.

Now, the Qi envoy Lord Gaoling Xian, whom Song Yi had met on the road, was present in the Chu army. He had an audience with King Huai and said: "Song Yi predicted that Lord Wuxin's army would be defeated. A few days later, it was. To see the signs of defeat before battle is even joined — this man understands war." The King summoned Song Yi, discussed strategy with him, and was greatly impressed. He appointed Song Yi supreme commander, with Xiang Yu as Duke of Lu and second-in-command, and Fan Zeng as third-in-command, to rescue Zhao. All the separate detachment commanders were placed under Song Yi. He was given the title "Champion of the Nobles."

The army marched to Anyang and halted for forty-six days without advancing. Xiang Yu said: "I hear the Qin army has besieged the King of Zhao at Julu. We should cross the river at once — Chu attacks from outside, Zhao responds from inside — and the Qin army will certainly be broken." Song Yi replied: "Not so. The gadfly that bites a bull cannot crack a nit. If Qin defeats Zhao, its troops will be exhausted, and we exploit the advantage. If Qin fails, we march west with drums beating and take Qin outright. Better to let Qin and Zhao fight first. When it comes to bearing armor and wielding weapons, I am no match for you. When it comes to sitting in command and devising strategy, you are no match for me." He then issued orders to the army: "Any man who is fierce as a tiger, stubborn as a ram, greedy as a wolf, and too headstrong to take orders — execute him."

Song Yi then sent his son Song Xiang to serve as chancellor of Qi and personally escorted him as far as Wuyan, drinking wine and holding banquets. The weather was bitterly cold with heavy rain. The soldiers were freezing and starving.

Xiang Yu said: "We are supposed to be uniting our strength to attack Qin, yet we sit here and do not move. This year the harvests have failed and the people are destitute. The soldiers are eating taro and beans. There are no grain reserves in camp. Yet Song Yi drinks wine and holds feasts. He will not lead the army across the river to feed off Zhao's supplies and join Zhao in attacking Qin. Instead he talks of 'exploiting their exhaustion.' With Qin's full strength bearing down on a newly established Zhao, the outcome is certain — Qin will take Zhao. And once Zhao falls and Qin grows stronger, what exhaustion will there be to exploit? Our own national army was just destroyed. The King cannot sit still on his throne. He has scraped together every soldier within our borders and entrusted them all to the supreme commander. The survival of the state hinges on this one campaign. Yet Song Yi ignores the soldiers and pursues his private interests. This is not a man who serves the altars of state."

At dawn, Xiang Yu went to pay his respects to Supreme Commander Song Yi. Inside Song Yi's tent, he cut off his head. He came out and announced to the army: "Song Yi conspired with Qi to rebel against Chu. The King secretly ordered me to execute him." At that moment, all the commanders were cowed into submission. None dared oppose him. They said: "It was your family, General, that first established Chu. Now you have put down a traitor." Together they installed Xiang Yu as acting supreme commander.

Men were sent to pursue Song Yi's son. They caught up with him in Qi and killed him. Huan Chu was sent to report to King Huai. The King had no choice but to confirm Xiang Yu as supreme commander. Lord Dangyang and General Pu were both placed under his command.

Having killed the Champion of the Nobles, Xiang Yu's prestige shook the state of Chu, and his name was known to every feudal lord. He sent Lord Dangyang and General Pu across the Yellow River with twenty thousand men to relieve Julu. They won a minor engagement. Chen Yu requested more troops.

Xiang Yu then led his entire army across the river. He sank every boat. He smashed the cooking pots and steamers. He burned the shelters. Each soldier carried three days' rations — nothing more. By this he showed his men that they must fight to the death: there would be no return.

They reached Julu and surrounded Wang Li. They clashed with the Qin army nine times, severed the walled supply corridor, and shattered them. They killed Su Jiao and captured Wang Li alive. She Jian refused to surrender to Chu and burned himself to death.

At this moment, the Chu army stood above all the feudal lords. More than ten allied armies had camped around Julu to rescue Zhao, but none dared commit their troops. When Chu attacked Qin, the commanders of every allied army watched from atop their ramparts. Every Chu soldier fought as if one man against ten. The battle cries of the Chu army shook the heavens. Every man in the allied armies trembled with fear.

When the Qin army was broken, Xiang Yu summoned the feudal commanders. As they entered through the gate of his camp, every one of them advanced on their knees. None dared look up. From this moment, Xiang Yu became supreme commander of all the feudal lords, and all of them submitted to his authority.

Zhang Han camped at Jiyuan. Xiang Yu camped south of the Zhang River. The two armies faced off without engaging. The Qin forces suffered repeated setbacks, and the Second Emperor sent envoys to reprimand Zhang Han. Zhang Han was frightened. He sent his chief of staff Sima Xin to report to the capital. Xin arrived at Xianyang and waited at the Sima Gate for three days. Zhao Gao refused to see him, showing clear distrust. Alarmed, Sima Xin fled back to the army by a different route. Zhao Gao indeed sent men to pursue him, but they failed to catch him.

Xin reported to the army: "Zhao Gao controls everything at court. No one below him can accomplish anything. If we win the battle, Zhao Gao will certainly be consumed with jealousy of our achievement. If we lose, we die regardless. I urge the general to consider this carefully."

Chen Yu also sent Zhang Han a letter: "Bai Qi was Qin's general. He campaigned south to Yan and Ying, buried the army of Lord Mafu alive in the north, took more cities and territory than can be counted — yet in the end he was ordered to kill himself. Meng Tian was Qin's general. He drove the Rong peoples north, opened up thousands of li of territory at Yuzhong — yet in the end he was executed at Yangzhou. Why? Because their achievements were too great for Qin to fully reward, so Qin used the law to destroy them.

"Now you, General, have been Qin's commander for three years. Your losses number in the hundreds of thousands, while the feudal lords rise up and multiply. Zhao Gao has been a flatterer for years. Now that the situation is critical, he fears the Second Emperor will punish him too, so he wants to use the law to execute you and deflect blame, then replace you with someone else to save himself. You have been in the field too long and have too many enemies at court. Win or lose, you die. And Heaven's destruction of Qin — every fool and wise man alike can see it. You cannot speak freely at court, and abroad you command a doomed state's army, standing alone and isolated, hoping somehow to survive. Is this not pitiful? General, why not turn your troops, join the alliance of feudal lords, attack Qin together, divide its lands, and face south as a king? Surely this is better than bowing your neck to the executioner's block while your wife and children are slaughtered?"

Zhang Han wavered. He secretly sent his envoy Hou Shicheng to Xiang Yu to negotiate terms. Before the terms were settled, Xiang Yu ordered General Pu to march his troops across the Sanhu crossing day and night, camp south of the Zhang River, and attack the Qin forces. He defeated them twice. Xiang Yu then threw his full army against the Qin forces at the Wu River and crushed them.

Zhang Han sent a man to see Xiang Yu and request terms. Xiang Yu called his officers to council: "Our grain is running low. I am inclined to accept." The officers all agreed. Xiang Yu set a meeting with Zhang Han at Yin Ruins, south of the Huan River. After the oath was sworn, Zhang Han came before Xiang Yu and wept, telling him of Zhao Gao's tyranny. Xiang Yu enfeoffed Zhang Han as King of Yong and kept him in the Chu army. He made Sima Xin supreme commander of the surrendered Qin troops and placed them in the vanguard.

When they reached Xin'an, a problem emerged. In the past, feudal soldiers on corvée duty had passed through the Qin heartland, and Qin officials and soldiers had treated them with contempt and cruelty. Now that the Qin army had surrendered, the feudal soldiers took their revenge — abusing, enslaving, and humiliating the Qin troops. The Qin soldiers whispered among themselves: "General Zhang tricked us into surrendering to the feudal lords. If we can break into the passes and destroy Qin, good. But if we cannot, the feudal lords will drag us east as captives, and Qin will slaughter our parents, wives, and children."

The feudal commanders got wind of this unrest and reported it to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu summoned Qing Bu and General Pu and said: "The Qin troops are still numerous and their hearts are not with us. If they refuse to obey when we reach the passes, we face disaster. Better to kill them now and enter Qin with only Zhang Han, Sima Xin, and Commander Dong Yi."

That night, the Chu army attacked and buried alive more than two hundred thousand surrendered Qin soldiers south of Xin'an.

The army advanced, conquering the Qin territories as it went. There were troops guarding Hangu Pass, and the army could not enter. Then word came that the Duke of Pei had already taken Xianyang. Xiang Yu was furious. He sent Lord Dangyang and others to storm the pass. Xiang Yu then entered and reached the area west of Xi.

The Duke of Pei was camped at Bashang. He had not yet met with Xiang Yu. The Duke of Pei's Left Marshal Cao Wushang sent a man to tell Xiang Yu: "The Duke of Pei intends to make himself king of the lands within the passes. He has made Ziying his chancellor and taken possession of all the treasures." Xiang Yu was enraged: "Tomorrow, feast the troops — then we destroy the Duke of Pei's army!"

At this time, Xiang Yu had four hundred thousand soldiers at Hongmen near Xinfeng. The Duke of Pei had one hundred thousand at Bashang.

Fan Zeng advised Xiang Yu: "When the Duke of Pei was east of the mountains, he was greedy for wealth and fond of beautiful women. Now he has entered the passes and taken no property, favored no women. His ambition is not small. I had someone observe his emanations — they form dragons and tigers in five colors. This is the aura of a Son of Heaven. Strike now, before you lose the chance."

Xiang Bo, the Chu Left Commandant, was Xiang Yu's uncle. He had long been friends with Zhang Liang, the Marquis of Liu. Zhang Liang was at that time serving the Duke of Pei. Xiang Bo rode through the night to the Duke of Pei's camp, met Zhang Liang in private, told him everything, and urged him to flee. "Do not stay and die with him," he said.

Zhang Liang replied: "I was sent by the King of Han to escort the Duke of Pei. Now that he faces a crisis, to abandon him would be disloyal. I must tell him." Liang went in and told the Duke of Pei everything. The Duke of Pei was aghast: "What do I do?" Zhang Liang asked: "Who advised you on this plan?" "A petty scholar told me: 'Hold the passes, deny entry to the other lords, and you can rule all the Qin lands.' So I listened to him." Liang said: "Does Your Lordship honestly believe your troops are a match for Xiang Yu's?" The Duke of Pei was silent a long moment. "Of course they are not. What am I to do?" Zhang Liang said: "Let me go to Xiang Bo and tell him that the Duke of Pei would never dare betray Xiang Yu."

The Duke of Pei asked: "How do you know Xiang Bo?" Liang said: "Under Qin, we were friends. Xiang Bo killed a man, and I saved his life. Now that things are desperate, he has come to warn me." The Duke of Pei asked: "Who is older, you or he?" "He is older than I." "Bring him in — I will treat him as an elder brother."

Zhang Liang went out and brought Xiang Bo in. The Duke of Pei offered him a cup of wine in toast, proposed a marriage alliance between their families, and said: "Since I entered the passes, I have not dared touch so much as a hair's breadth of property. I have registered the officials and people, sealed the treasuries, and waited for the General. The reason I sent troops to guard the passes was only to prevent bandits and deal with emergencies. Day and night I have waited for the General's arrival — how could I dare rebel? I beg you to convey to him that I would never betray his trust."

Xiang Bo agreed. He told the Duke of Pei: "Tomorrow you must come early in person to apologize to Xiang Yu." The Duke of Pei said: "I will."

Xiang Bo rode back through the night. He reported everything the Duke of Pei had said to Xiang Yu, then added: "If the Duke of Pei had not broken through first, would you have dared enter? Now a man has rendered great service and you would attack him — that is unjust. Better to treat him well." Xiang Yu agreed.

The next day, the Duke of Pei came to see Xiang Yu with an escort of just over a hundred horsemen. He arrived at Hongmen and said in apology: "I joined forces with the General to attack Qin. The General fought north of the river, I fought south of it. I never expected to enter the passes first and defeat Qin, nor to meet the General again here. Now petty men have spoken between us and caused a rift."

Xiang Yu said: "That was your Left Marshal Cao Wushang's doing. Otherwise, how would things have come to this?" Xiang Yu kept the Duke of Pei that day to drink with him.

Xiang Yu and Xiang Bo sat facing east. The Second Father sat facing south — the Second Father was Fan Zeng. The Duke of Pei sat facing north. Zhang Liang attended, facing west.

Fan Zeng repeatedly caught Xiang Yu's eye and raised the jade jue pendant at his waist three times to signal him. Xiang Yu sat silent and did not respond.

Fan Zeng rose, went out, and summoned Xiang Zhuang. He said: "The King is too soft-hearted. Go in and offer a toast. When the toast is done, ask to perform a sword dance — and strike the Duke of Pei where he sits. Kill him. If you do not, all of us will become his captives."

Xiang Zhuang went in and offered his toast. When it was done, he said: "The King drinks with the Duke of Pei, but there is no entertainment in camp. May I perform a sword dance?" Xiang Yu said: "Very well."

Xiang Zhuang drew his sword and began to dance. Xiang Bo also drew his sword and danced, constantly shielding the Duke of Pei with his body like a wing, so that Zhuang could not strike.

Zhang Liang went to the camp gate and found Fan Kuai. Fan Kuai asked: "How are things?" Liang said: "Critical. Xiang Zhuang is dancing with his sword, and his intent is fixed on the Duke of Pei." Fan Kuai said: "This is desperate. Let me go in and share his fate."

Fan Kuai strapped on his sword, took up his shield, and strode toward the camp gate. The guards crossed their halberds to block him. Fan Kuai rammed them with his shield. The guards fell. Fan Kuai burst through, threw aside the curtain, and stood facing west. He glared at Xiang Yu, his hair bristling upward, his eyes splitting at the corners.

Xiang Yu gripped his sword and rose to his knees: "Who is this man?" Zhang Liang said: "He is Fan Kuai, the Duke of Pei's chariot bodyguard." Xiang Yu said: "A brave man! Give him a cup of wine." They brought him a full dou of wine. Fan Kuai bowed in thanks, stood, and drank it down. Xiang Yu said: "Give him a leg of pork." They brought a raw leg of pork. Fan Kuai set his shield on the ground, placed the pork on top, drew his sword, sliced it, and ate.

Xiang Yu said: "A brave man! Can you drink more?" Fan Kuai said: "I do not flinch from death itself — why would I refuse a cup of wine? The King of Qin had the heart of a tiger and a wolf. He killed as though he could never kill enough. He punished as though he feared someone might escape punishment. All-Under-Heaven turned against him. King Huai made a compact with his commanders: 'He who first breaks Qin and enters Xianyang shall be king there.' Now the Duke of Pei entered Xianyang first. He did not dare touch so much as a hair of its wealth. He sealed the palaces, withdrew his army to Bashang, and waited for the Great King's arrival. He sent troops to guard the passes only against bandits and emergencies. After such toil and such achievement, he has received no reward of enfeoffment. Instead, you listen to slander and would kill a man of merit. This is simply continuing the way of fallen Qin. In my humble view, the Great King should not take this path."

Xiang Yu had no answer. He said: "Sit." Fan Kuai sat down beside Zhang Liang. After a short while, the Duke of Pei rose to use the latrine and beckoned Fan Kuai to follow him out.

The Duke of Pei had gone out. Xiang Yu sent his commandant Chen Ping to summon the Duke of Pei back. The Duke of Pei said: "I have come out without taking my leave. What should I do?" Fan Kuai said: "When undertaking great deeds, do not fuss over small courtesies. When performing great rites, do not worry about minor proprieties. Right now, they are the knife and the cutting board; we are the fish and the meat. What is there to take leave of?"

So they left. The Duke of Pei ordered Zhang Liang to stay behind and present his excuses. Liang asked: "What gifts did Your Lordship bring?" "I brought a pair of white jade discs to present to Xiang Yu, and a pair of jade wine cups for the Second Father. But I met with such hostility that I dared not offer them. Present them for me." Zhang Liang said: "I shall."

At this time, Xiang Yu's army was at Hongmen and the Duke of Pei's army at Bashang — forty li apart. The Duke of Pei abandoned his chariot and escort, slipped away on a single horse, and with Fan Kuai, Xiahou Ying, Jin Qiang, and Ji Xin — four men carrying swords and shields on foot — took a shortcut under Mount Li through Zhiyang. The Duke of Pei told Zhang Liang: "By this route, it is no more than twenty li to my camp. Wait until I have had time to reach the army, then go in."

After the Duke of Pei had gone and reached his camp by the back route, Zhang Liang entered and said: "The Duke of Pei cannot hold his liquor and was unable to take his leave. He has respectfully sent your servant Liang to present a pair of white jade discs with two bows to the Great King, and a pair of jade wine cups with two bows to the Grand General."

Xiang Yu asked: "Where is the Duke of Pei?" Liang said: "He heard that the Great King intended to reprimand him. He slipped away alone and has already reached his camp."

Xiang Yu accepted the jade discs and placed them on his seat. The Second Father took the jade cups, set them on the ground, drew his sword, and smashed them. He said: "Bah! This boy is not worth scheming with. The man who will steal All-Under-Heaven from Xiang Yu — that is the Duke of Pei. We are all going to be his captives."

The Duke of Pei reached his camp and immediately executed Cao Wushang.

A few days later, Xiang Yu led his army west and sacked Xianyang. He killed Ziying, the surrendered King of Qin. He burned the Qin palaces — the fire raged for three months without going out. He seized the treasures and the women, and turned east.

Someone advised Xiang Yu: "The land within the passes is shielded by mountains and rivers on four sides, the soil is rich and fertile — you could establish your capital here and rule as hegemon." But Xiang Yu saw that the Qin palaces were already burned to ruins, and his heart longed to go home to the east. He said: "To become rich and noble and not return to one's homeland — that is like wearing embroidered robes and walking in the dark. Who would see it?"

The advisor said: "People say that the men of Chu are merely monkeys in caps. So it is." Xiang Yu heard this and had the man boiled alive.

Xiang Yu sent a man to report to King Huai. King Huai said: "Follow the compact." Xiang Yu then honored King Huai with the title Righteous Emperor.

Xiang Yu intended to make himself king, but first he enfeoffed the various commanders. He declared: "When the troubles first began, the descendants of the old feudal houses were set up as temporary figureheads to attack Qin. But those who bore armor, wielded weapons, led the fight, and spent three years exposed to the elements to destroy Qin and pacify All-Under-Heaven — that was the work of the commanders and of me, Ji. The Righteous Emperor contributed nothing. Still, we should divide the land and make him king of a portion."

The commanders all said: "Well spoken." And so he divided All-Under-Heaven and established the commanders as kings and marquises.

Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng suspected the Duke of Pei would contest All-Under-Heaven. They had already made peace with him and were reluctant to openly break the compact, fearing the other lords would rebel. So they plotted in private: "The roads to Ba and Shu are treacherous. All the convicts Qin exiled were sent to Shu." They then declared: "Ba and Shu are also part of the land within the passes." So they made the Duke of Pei King of Han, ruling Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong, with his capital at Nanzheng. They divided the land within the passes into three kingdoms and gave them to Qin's surrendered generals, to block the King of Han.

Xiang Yu made Zhang Han King of Yong, ruling the territory west of Xianyang, with his capital at Feiqu. Sima Xin, the former Liyang prison clerk who had once done Xiang Liang a favor, was made King of Sai, ruling from Xianyang east to the Yellow River, with his capital at Liyang. Dong Yi, who had originally persuaded Zhang Han to surrender, was made King of Di, ruling Shang Commandery, with his capital at Gaonu.

King Bao of Wei was relocated as King of Western Wei, ruling Hedong, with his capital at Pingyang. Shen Yang of Xiaqiu, a favorite minister of Zhang Er who had first taken Henan and welcomed Chu at the river, was made King of Henan, with his capital at Luoyang. King Cheng of Han kept his former capital at Yangdi. The Zhao general Sima Ang, who had pacified Henei and won several merits, was made King of Yin, ruling Henei, with his capital at Zhaoyu. King Xie of Zhao was relocated as King of Dai. Zhang Er, chancellor of Zhao, known for his virtue and having followed the army into the passes, was made King of Changshan, ruling the Zhao lands, with his capital at Xiangguo.

Lord Dangyang — Qing Bu — had served as a Chu general and was always first in battle, so he was made King of Jiujiang, with his capital at Liu. Lord Po, Wu Rui, who had led the Hundred Yue peoples to aid the feudal lords and also entered the passes, was made King of Hengshan, with his capital at Zhu. Gong Ao, Grand Pillar of State under the Righteous Emperor, who had led troops to attack Nan Commandery and won many merits, was made King of Linjiang, with his capital at Jiangling.

King Han Guang of Yan was relocated as King of Liaodong. The Yan general Zang Tu, who had followed Chu to rescue Zhao and then entered the passes, was made King of Yan, with his capital at Ji. King Tian Shi of Qi was relocated as King of Jiaodong. The Qi general Tian Du, who had joined the rescue of Zhao and entered the passes, was made King of Qi, with his capital at Linzi. Tian An, grandson of King Jian of Qi whom Qin had destroyed, had captured several cities in Jibei and surrendered his troops to Xiang Yu while Xiang Yu was crossing the river to rescue Zhao, so he was made King of Jibei, with his capital at Boyang.

Tian Rong had repeatedly failed Xiang Liang and refused to send troops to join Chu in attacking Qin, so he received no enfeoffment. Chen Yu, Lord Cheng'an, had abandoned his general's seal and left, and had not entered the passes. But Xiang Yu had heard of his virtue and his services to Zhao, and learned he was at Nanpi, so he granted him a ring of three counties. General Mei Juan under Lord Fan had many merits and was enfeoffed as a marquis with a hundred thousand households.

Xiang Yu titled himself Hegemon-King of Western Chu, ruling nine commanderies, with his capital at Pengcheng.

In the fourth month of the first year of Han, the feudal lords disbanded from Xi and departed for their kingdoms. As Xiang Yu set out for his own kingdom, he sent men to relocate the Righteous Emperor, saying: "In ancient times, an emperor's domain was a thousand li on each side, and he always dwelt at the upper reaches of the rivers." He sent envoys to move the Righteous Emperor to Chen County in Changsha. He pressed the Emperor to leave quickly. The Emperor's ministers gradually deserted him. Then Xiang Yu secretly ordered the kings of Hengshan and Linjiang to ambush and kill him on the river.

King Cheng of Han had no military merits. Xiang Yu did not allow him to go to his kingdom but brought him to Pengcheng, demoted him to marquis, and then killed him. When Zang Tu went to his kingdom, he drove Han Guang toward Liaodong. Han Guang refused to go. Zang Tu attacked and killed him at Wuzhong, annexing his territory.

When Tian Rong heard that Xiang Yu had relocated King Shi of Qi to Jiaodong and installed the Qi general Tian Du as King of Qi, he was furious. He refused to send King Shi to Jiaodong and raised Qi in revolt, attacking Tian Du. Tian Du fled to Chu. King Shi of Qi, afraid of Xiang Yu, fled to Jiaodong to take up his assigned kingdom. Tian Rong, enraged, pursued and killed him at Jimo. Tian Rong then declared himself King of Qi, marched west, and killed King Tian An of Jibei, unifying all three parts of Qi under his rule. He gave Peng Yue a general's seal and ordered him to rebel in the Liang territory.

Chen Yu secretly sent Zhang Tong and Xia Shuo to persuade King Tian Rong of Qi: "Xiang Yu rules All-Under-Heaven unjustly. He has sent the former kings to poor territories and given the good lands to his own followers and generals. He drove the former King of Zhao north to Dai — I say this cannot stand. I hear that the Great King has raised his troops and refuses to accept this injustice. I beg the Great King to provide me with soldiers. I will attack Changshan, restore the King of Zhao, and make my state a buffer for Qi." The King of Qi agreed and sent troops to Zhao. Chen Yu mobilized all the soldiers of his three counties, joined forces with Qi, and attacked Changshan, shattering it. Zhang Er fled to Han. Chen Yu brought the former King Xie of Zhao back from Dai and restored him in Zhao. The King of Zhao then made Chen Yu King of Dai.

At this time, the King of Han had reconquered the Three Qins. When Xiang Yu heard that the King of Han had unified the passes and was about to march east, and that Qi and Zhao had rebelled, he was furious. He installed Zheng Chang, the former magistrate of Wu, as King of Han to block the King of Han's advance. He sent Xiao Gongjiao and others to attack Peng Yue, but Peng Yue defeated them.

The King of Han sent Zhang Liang on a campaign through Han and forwarded a letter to Xiang Yu: "The King of Han only lost his rightful position and wants the lands within the passes. As the compact stipulates, he will stop there and has no intention of moving east." He also sent Xiang Yu forged letters about the Qi and Liang rebellions: "Qi intends to join with Zhao and destroy Chu." Because of this, Chu turned its attention away from the west and marched north to strike Qi.

Xiang Yu summoned troops from King Bu of Jiujiang. Bu pleaded illness and would not come, sending only a general with a few thousand men. Xiang Yu resented him for this.

In the winter of the second year of Han, Xiang Yu marched north to Chengyang. Tian Rong brought his troops to meet him in battle but was defeated. He fled to Pingyuan, where the local people killed him. Xiang Yu marched north, burning and destroying the walls, buildings, and houses of Qi. He buried alive all of Tian Rong's surrendered soldiers and took the old, the weak, and the women as captives. He swept through Qi as far as the Northern Sea, leaving devastation everywhere. The people of Qi gathered together and revolted against him. Tian Rong's brother Tian Heng rallied the scattered Qi soldiers — tens of thousands of them — and retook Chengyang. Xiang Yu was bogged down, fighting battle after battle, unable to subdue them.

In the spring, the King of Han assembled the armies of five feudal lords — 560,000 men in all — and marched east against Chu. When Xiang Yu heard this, he ordered his generals to continue the Qi campaign while he personally took thirty thousand elite troops south through Lu and out by Huling.

In the fourth month, the Han coalition had already entered Pengcheng. They seized its treasures and women and spent their days feasting and drinking. Xiang Yu came west through Xiao and attacked the Han army at dawn, driving east toward Pengcheng. By noon, he had shattered the Han army utterly. The Han troops fled, pouring into the Gu and Si rivers. Over a hundred thousand Han soldiers were killed. The Han troops all fled south toward the mountains. Chu pursued them to the Sui River east of Lingbi. The Han army was driven back and crushed by the Chu advance; the slaughter was immense. Over a hundred thousand Han soldiers fell into the Sui River, and the river ceased to flow.

Xiang Yu surrounded the King of Han three layers deep. Then a great storm rose from the northwest, snapping trees, tearing off roofs, hurling sand and stones, turning day into darkness. It drove straight into the Chu army. The Chu forces fell into chaos and scattered. The King of Han escaped with a few dozen horsemen.

He tried to pass through Pei to collect his family and head west, but Chu had sent men to Pei as well to seize his family. The family had all fled; they did not find the King of Han. On the road, the King of Han came upon his children — the future Emperor Xiaohui and Princess Luyuan — and took them into his chariot. The Chu cavalry pressed close. In his desperation, the King of Han shoved the children off the chariot. Teng Gong kept getting down to pick them up and put them back. This happened three times. Teng Gong said: "However desperate things are, we cannot drive faster. Why abandon them?" And so they escaped.

They searched for the Grand Duke and Empress Lü but could not find them. Shen Yiji had been traveling with the Grand Duke and Empress Lü by back roads, looking for the King of Han, but ran into the Chu army instead. The Chu forces brought them back and reported to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu kept them in his camp.

At this time, Empress Lü's brother, the Marquis of Zhou Lü, was commanding Han troops at Xiayi. The King of Han slipped away to join him and gradually reassembled his soldiers. When he reached Xingyang, all the defeated forces converged there. Xiao He also mobilized the old and young men of Guanzhong who had not yet been called up and sent them all to Xingyang. The army was restored to full strength.

Chu had advanced from Pengcheng, riding its momentum and pursuing the retreating Han forces. But in the battles south of Xingyang, between Jing and Suo, Han defeated Chu. Chu was therefore unable to push past Xingyang and advance west.

When Xiang Yu turned back from pursuing the King of Han to Xingyang, Tian Heng was able to recover Qi and enthrone Tian Rong's son Guang as King of Qi. After the King of Han's defeat at Pengcheng, all the feudal lords switched sides back to Chu and abandoned Han.

The Han army fortified Xingyang and built a walled supply corridor connecting it to the Yellow River, drawing grain from the Ao Granary. In the third year of Han, Xiang Yu repeatedly raided and seized sections of the Han supply corridor. The King of Han, short of food and frightened, offered peace, proposing to cede everything east of Xingyang to Chu.

Xiang Yu was inclined to accept. The Marquis of Liyang, Fan Zeng, said: "Han is easy to take now. If you let them go today, you will regret it." Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng then pressed the siege of Xingyang.

The King of Han was desperate. He adopted Chen Ping's scheme to drive a wedge between Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng. When Xiang Yu's envoy arrived, the Han court prepared a grand sacrificial feast and made a show of presenting it. Upon seeing the envoy, they feigned shock: "We thought you were the Second Father's envoy — but you are Xiang Yu's envoy!" They took the fine food away and served the envoy coarse rations instead.

The envoy returned and reported this to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu began to suspect that Fan Zeng was in secret communication with Han, and gradually stripped him of authority. Fan Zeng was furious. He said: "The affairs of All-Under-Heaven are largely settled. Let the King manage them himself. I beg leave to return my old bones to the ranks." Xiang Yu let him go. Before he reached Pengcheng, a carbuncle erupted on his back, and he died.

The Han general Ji Xin said to the King of Han: "The situation is desperate. Let me impersonate you and deceive Chu. You can slip out through a gap."

That night, the King of Han sent two thousand women out of Xingyang's east gate, dressed in armor. The Chu forces attacked them on all sides. Ji Xin rode out in the yellow-canopied imperial chariot, flying the left-side pennant, and announced: "The city's food is exhausted. The King of Han surrenders." The Chu army shouted ten thousand cheers.

Meanwhile, the King of Han and several dozen horsemen slipped out through the west gate and fled to Chenggao. When Xiang Yu saw Ji Xin, he demanded: "Where is the King of Han?" Ji Xin said: "The King of Han has already escaped." Xiang Yu had Ji Xin burned alive.

The King of Han left the Imperial Censor Zhou Ke, Cong Gong, and King Bao of Wei to hold Xingyang. Zhou Ke and Cong Gong discussed the matter: "A king who has betrayed his own state cannot be trusted to defend a city." They killed Wei Bao.

Chu took Xingyang and captured Zhou Ke alive. Xiang Yu said to him: "Serve me as my general. I will make you supreme commander and enfeoff you with thirty thousand households." Zhou Ke cursed him: "You had better surrender to Han quickly. Han is going to capture you. You are no match for Han." Xiang Yu, furious, had Zhou Ke boiled alive and killed Cong Gong as well.

After escaping Xingyang, the King of Han fled south to Wan and Ye, recruited King Bu of Jiujiang, gathered troops along the way, and returned to hold Chenggao. In the fourth year of Han, Xiang Yu advanced and besieged Chenggao. The King of Han fled again, escaping through Chenggao's north gate with only Teng Gong, crossing the Yellow River, and reaching Xiuwu, where he joined the forces of Zhang Er and Han Xin. His other commanders gradually escaped Chenggao and rejoined him. Chu took Chenggao and attempted to advance west. Han sent troops to block them at Gong, preventing them from going further.

At this time, Peng Yue crossed the Yellow River and attacked Chu at Dong'e, killing the Chu general Lord Xue. Xiang Yu personally marched east to strike Peng Yue. The King of Han, having taken command of the Marquis of Huaiyin's troops, wanted to cross the river southward. Zheng Zhong advised against it, so the King of Han stayed and fortified Henei instead. He sent Liu Jia to lead troops in support of Peng Yue, burning Chu's supply depots. Xiang Yu marched east and defeated them, driving Peng Yue away. The King of Han then led his army across the river, retook Chenggao, and camped at Guangwu, drawing supplies from the Ao Granary. Xiang Yu, having pacified the east, returned west. Both armies faced each other at Guangwu, locked in a standoff for months.

During this time, Peng Yue repeatedly raided the Liang territory, cutting Chu's food supply. Xiang Yu was troubled. He had a tall chopping block built, placed the Grand Duke upon it, and called out to the King of Han: "Surrender now, or I boil your father alive."

The King of Han replied: "You and I both received our commands from King Huai, facing north together. We called each other 'sworn brothers.' My father is your father. If you insist on boiling your own father, be so kind as to share me a cup of the broth."

Xiang Yu was furious and wanted to kill the old man. Xiang Bo said: "The outcome of All-Under-Heaven is not yet decided. A man who seeks to rule All-Under-Heaven does not concern himself with his family. Even if you kill him, it gains nothing — it only adds to the disaster." Xiang Yu relented.

Chu and Han remained locked in their standoff. The young men suffered under military service; the old and weak were exhausted from transporting grain. Xiang Yu called out to the King of Han: "All-Under-Heaven has been in turmoil for years, and all because of the two of us. I challenge you to single combat to decide the issue — do not make the fathers and sons of All-Under-Heaven suffer for nothing."

The King of Han laughed and declined: "I would rather match wits than match strength."

Xiang Yu sent his champions forward to challenge the Han forces. Han had a skilled mounted archer called Loufan. Three times Chu warriors came out to duel, and three times Loufan shot them dead. Xiang Yu was enraged. He put on his own armor, took up his halberd, and strode out to challenge. Loufan tried to draw his bow, but Xiang Yu glared at him and bellowed. Loufan's eyes could not look at him, his hands could not loose the arrow. He turned and fled behind the ramparts, and did not dare come out again.

The King of Han sent a man to inquire discreetly who the challenger had been. It was Xiang Yu himself. The King of Han was shaken.

Xiang Yu and the King of Han then spoke to each other across the Guangwu gorge. The King of Han enumerated Xiang Yu's crimes. Xiang Yu, enraged, wanted battle. The King of Han refused. Xiang Yu had a hidden crossbowman shoot the King of Han. The bolt struck him. Wounded, the King of Han withdrew to Chenggao.

Xiang Yu heard that the Marquis of Huaiyin had conquered the lands north of the Yellow River, defeated Qi and Zhao, and was preparing to attack Chu. He sent Long Ju to stop him. The Marquis of Huaiyin gave battle, and the cavalry general Guan Ying struck the Chu army, destroying it and killing Long Ju. Han Xin then declared himself King of Qi.

When Xiang Yu heard that Long Ju's army had been annihilated, he was afraid. He sent Wu Hui She of Xutai to persuade the Marquis of Huaiyin to change sides. The Marquis of Huaiyin would not listen.

At this time, Peng Yue again revolted, took the Liang territory, and cut Chu's grain supply. Xiang Yu told the Grand Marshal Cao Jiu, Marquis of Haichun, and the others: "Hold Chenggao firmly. If Han tries to provoke a battle, under no circumstances engage. Just prevent them from moving east. Within fifteen days I will have destroyed Peng Yue, pacified Liang, and returned to rejoin you." He marched east and attacked Chenliu and Waihuang.

Waihuang would not surrender. After several days it finally submitted. Xiang Yu was furious and ordered all males aged fifteen and above to assemble east of the city, intending to bury them alive.

A retainer's son in the household of the Waihuang magistrate, a boy of thirteen, went to see Xiang Yu and said: "Peng Yue coerced Waihuang by force. The people were frightened. They surrendered temporarily and waited for the Great King. Now the Great King arrives and buries them all alive — where will the people's loyalty go? From here eastward, more than ten cities of the Liang territory will be terrified. None will be willing to surrender."

Xiang Yu accepted his reasoning and pardoned all those condemned at Waihuang. He marched east to Suiyang, and every city, having heard the news, competed to surrender to him.

Han repeatedly provoked the Chu garrison to battle, but the Chu army would not come out. Han sent men to taunt them. After five or six days, the Grand Marshal lost his temper and sent his troops across the Si River. When the soldiers were halfway across, Han struck, destroying the Chu army utterly and seizing all of Chu's treasury. Grand Marshal Cao Jiu, Chief of Staff Dong Yi, and King Xin of Sai all cut their own throats on the banks of the Si River.

Cao Jiu had been the former prison clerk of Qi; Sima Xin had been the former prison officer of Liyang. Both men had once done favors for Xiang Liang, and for this reason Xiang Yu had trusted them with command.

At that time, Xiang Yu was at Suiyang. When he heard that the Marquis of Haichun's army had been destroyed, he marched back. The Han army had been besieging Zhongli Mo east of Xingyang, but when Xiang Yu arrived, the Han forces retreated to defensible ground in fear.

By now, Han's troops were strong and its food supplies plentiful. Xiang Yu's troops were exhausted and his food was gone. Han sent Lu Jia to negotiate with Xiang Yu for the release of the Grand Duke. Xiang Yu refused. The King of Han then sent Lord Hou to negotiate. This time Xiang Yu agreed to a treaty: All-Under-Heaven would be divided in two, with everything west of the Honggou canal going to Han and everything east to Chu. Xiang Yu accepted and returned the King of Han's father, mother, wife, and children. Both armies cheered ten thousand cheers.

The King of Han enfeoffed Lord Hou as Lord Pingguo — then hid him away and refused to see him again. He said: "This is the most dangerous persuader in All-Under-Heaven. Wherever he goes, he can overturn a state — so I call him 'Lord Who Pacifies States.'"

The treaty concluded, Xiang Yu withdrew his army and marched east toward home.

The King of Han was about to head west for home. Zhang Liang and Chen Ping advised him: "Han holds more than half of All-Under-Heaven, and all the feudal lords have rallied to us. Chu's soldiers are exhausted and its food is gone. This is Heaven's time to destroy Chu — seize the opportunity and finish it. If you let him go now, that is what they call 'raising a tiger and leaving yourself the trouble.'"

The King of Han agreed. In the fifth year of Han, the King of Han pursued Xiang Yu south to Yangxia and halted his army, arranging to rendezvous with the Marquis of Huaiyin Han Xin and the Marquis of Jiancheng Peng Yue for a joint strike against the Chu army.

When they reached Guling, Han Xin's and Peng Yue's forces had not arrived. Chu attacked the Han army and inflicted a crushing defeat. The King of Han retreated behind his walls, dug deep trenches, and held fast. He said to Zhang Liang: "The feudal lords have not kept their agreement. What do I do?"

Zhang Liang replied: "Chu's army is on the verge of collapse, but Han Xin and Peng Yue have not yet received territory of their own. Naturally they will not come. If Your Majesty is willing to share All-Under-Heaven with them, they can be summoned immediately. If not, the outcome is uncertain. Grant Han Xin everything from Chen eastward to the sea. Grant Peng Yue everything from Suiyang north to Gucheng. Let each fight for his own stake, and Chu will be easy to defeat."

The King of Han said: "Good." He dispatched envoys to Han Xin and Peng Yue: "Join forces to destroy Chu. When Chu is broken, everything from Chen east to the sea goes to the King of Qi, and everything from Suiyang north to Gucheng goes to Chancellor Peng."

When the envoys arrived, Han Xin and Peng Yue both replied: "We will advance our troops at once." Han Xin marched from Qi. Liu Jia's army advanced from Shouchun in parallel. They sacked Chengfu and reached Gaixia. The Grand Marshal Zhou Yin defected from Chu, used the city of Shu to take Liu by force, raised the troops of Jiujiang, and joined Liu Jia and Peng Yue — all converging on Gaixia to confront Xiang Yu.

Xiang Yu's army was walled in at Gaixia. His soldiers were few and his food was gone. The Han army and the armies of the feudal lords surrounded him layer upon layer. In the night, he heard Chu songs rising from the Han lines on all four sides.

Xiang Yu was stunned: "Has Han already taken all of Chu? How can there be so many Chu people among them?"

Xiang Yu rose in the night and drank in his tent. He had a beautiful consort named Yu, who always attended him. He had a fine horse named Zhui, which he always rode. And now, overcome with grief and passion, Xiang Yu composed a poem and sang:

"My strength uprooted mountains, my spirit overmastered the world, But the times are against me, and Zhui will run no more. Zhui will run no more — what can be done? Yu — oh Yu — what will become of you?"

He sang it through several times. The beautiful Lady Yu sang in response. Tears streamed down Xiang Yu's face. All around him wept. None could bear to look up.

Xiang Yu mounted his horse. His personal guard — over eight hundred mounted warriors — broke through the encirclement to the south in the dead of night and rode hard.

At dawn, the Han army discovered the escape and sent the cavalry general Guan Ying with five thousand horsemen in pursuit. Xiang Yu crossed the Huai River. Only a hundred or so riders could keep up. At Yinling, Xiang Yu lost his way and asked a farmer for directions. The farmer lied: "Go left." He went left and plunged into a great marsh. The Han pursuit caught up.

Xiang Yu turned east again. When he reached Dongcheng, he had twenty-eight horsemen left. The Han cavalry pursuing him numbered several thousand.

Xiang Yu knew he could not escape. He addressed his riders: "I raised my army eight years ago. I have fought more than seventy battles in person. Every force I faced, I broke. Every army I struck, I conquered. I never once suffered defeat. I rose to rule All-Under-Heaven as hegemon. Yet now I am cornered here. This is Heaven destroying me — it is no fault of my fighting.

"Today I am resolved to die. But I will fight a great battle for you, my lords. I will win three victories, break through the encirclement for you, cut down a general, slash a banner — and show you that it is Heaven destroying me, not any failure of war."

He split his riders into four squads, facing four directions. The Han army surrounded them in multiple rings. Xiang Yu told his men: "Watch — I will take that general for you." He ordered the four squads to charge downhill and regroup at three points east of the hill.

Xiang Yu gave a great shout and charged. The Han lines broke apart before him. He cut down a Han general. The Marquis of Chiquan, a cavalry commander, pursued him. Xiang Yu turned and glared and bellowed. The Marquis of Chiquan's horse and rider both recoiled in terror and fell back several li.

Xiang Yu's riders regrouped at three points. The Han army, not knowing which group held Xiang Yu, split into three divisions and closed in again. Xiang Yu charged once more, cut down a Han commandant, killed several dozen men, then gathered his riders. He had lost only two.

He said to his men: "Well?" They all bowed low and said: "It is as the Great King said."

Xiang Yu now intended to cross the Wu River eastward. The Pavilion Chief of Wu River had a boat waiting out of loyalty and said to him: "Jiangdong may be small, but the land extends a thousand li and the population numbers in the hundreds of thousands — enough to be king over. I beg the Great King to cross quickly. Only I have a boat. When the Han army arrives, they will have no way to cross."

Xiang Yu laughed. "Heaven is destroying me. Why should I cross? Besides — I, Ji, crossed the Yangtze westward with eight thousand sons of Jiangdong. Today, not one of them returns. Even if the elders of Jiangdong took pity on me and made me king, what face would I have to look them in the eye? Even if they said nothing, would I alone not feel the shame in my heart?"

He said to the Pavilion Chief: "I know you are a worthy man. I have ridden this horse for five years. He has never met his match. He has covered a thousand li in a single day. I cannot bear to kill him. I give him to you."

He ordered all his riders to dismount and fight on foot with short weapons. Xiang Yu alone killed several hundred Han soldiers. He himself suffered more than ten wounds. He turned and saw the Han cavalry officer Lü Matong. "Are you not an old friend of mine?" he said. Lü Matong stared at his face and pointed him out to Wang Yi: "That is Xiang Yu."

Xiang Yu said: "I hear Han has put a price on my head — a thousand jin of gold and a fief of ten thousand households. Let me do you this favor." He cut his own throat and died.

Wang Yi seized his head. The remaining cavalrymen trampled and fought over Xiang Yu's body, killing dozens of each other in the struggle. In the end, the cavalry attendant Yang Xi, the cavalry officer Lü Matong, and the attendants Lü Sheng and Yang Wu each obtained one part of his body. When the five men assembled the parts, they matched. So the territory was divided into five: Lü Matong was enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhongshui, Wang Yi as Marquis of Duyan, Yang Xi as Marquis of Chiquan, Yang Wu as Marquis of Wufang, and Lü Sheng as Marquis of Nieyang.

With Xiang Yu dead, all the Chu territories surrendered to Han. Only Lu refused to submit. Han assembled the armies of All-Under-Heaven and prepared to massacre the city. But because the people of Lu upheld ritual propriety and were willing to die for their lord's honor, Han instead showed them Xiang Yu's head. The elders of Lu then surrendered.

Originally, King Huai of Chu had first enfeoffed Xiang Ji as Duke of Lu. When he died, Lu was the last to surrender. Therefore they buried Xiang Yu at Gucheng with the rites of the Duke of Lu.

The King of Han personally conducted mourning rites, wept for him, and departed.

As for the branch members of the Xiang clan, the King of Han put none of them to death. He enfeoffed Xiang Bo as Marquis of Sheyang. The Marquis of Tao, the Marquis of Pinggao, and the Marquis of Xuanwu were all members of the Xiang family; they were given the imperial surname Liu.

The Grand Historian says:

I have heard Master Zhou say that Shun had double pupils. I have also heard that Xiang Yu had double pupils. Could Xiang Yu have been Shun's distant descendant? How sudden was his rise!

When Qin lost its grip on government, Chen She raised the first standard of revolt. Heroes arose, contending with one another beyond all counting. Yet Xiang Yu held not an inch of territory and possessed no inherited advantage. He rose from the fields. In three years, he led five feudal armies to destroy Qin, divided All-Under-Heaven, and distributed kingdoms and marquisates. All political authority flowed from him. He was called 'Hegemon-King.' Though he did not hold his position to the end, from near antiquity to the present, there has never been anything like it.

But then he turned his back on the strategic heartland of the passes and clung to Chu out of nostalgia. He exiled the Righteous Emperor and set himself up in his place. When the feudal lords turned against him, he blamed them. He boasted of his own achievements, relied on his personal cunning rather than learning from the past, and called what he had 'the hegemon-king's enterprise.' He tried to conquer and manage All-Under-Heaven by force alone. In five years, he destroyed his own state and died at Dongcheng — and still he did not awaken, still he did not blame himself. This was his error.

To declare, 'Heaven has destroyed me; it is no fault of my use of arms' — is that not delusion?