孝文本紀

Emperor Wen was a middle son of Gaozu. In the spring of Gaozu's eleventh year, after the army of Chen Xi had been defeated and the Dai territory secured, he was made King of Dai, with his capital at Zhongdu. His mother was Lady Bo. He had been on the throne seventeen years when, in the seventh month of Empress Dowager Lü's eighth year, the Empress Dowager died. In the ninth month, the Lü clan — Lü Chan and others — plotted rebellion to endanger the Liu house. The senior ministers jointly destroyed them and deliberated on summoning the King of Dai to take the throne. These events are recorded in the account of Empress Dowager Lü.

Chancellor Chen Ping and Grand Commandant Zhou Bo sent envoys to fetch the King of Dai. The king consulted his Prefect of the Gentlemen Zhang Wu and others. Zhang Wu and his colleagues argued: "The senior Han ministers are all former generals from Emperor Gaozu's time — experienced in warfare and full of cunning. Their ambitions do not stop here; they were merely cowed by the authority of Gaozu and Empress Lü. Now they have just slaughtered the Lü clan, and the blood is still fresh in the capital. Their invitation to Your Majesty is a pretext; it cannot be trusted. We urge Your Majesty to plead illness and not go, but wait and watch."

The Colonel of the Capital Guard, Song Chang, stepped forward and said: "These arguments are all wrong. When Qin lost control of its government, lords and heroes rose everywhere — tens of thousands believed the throne was theirs for the taking. Yet in the end, only the house of Liu ascended to the position of Son of Heaven. The realm abandoned all other hopes — that is the first point. Gaozu enfeoffed his sons and brothers as kings, their territories interlocking like dogs' teeth, mutually restraining one another. This is what is called a 'foundation of solid rock.' The realm submits to its strength — that is the second point. When the Han dynasty arose, it swept away the harsh laws of Qin, simplified the legal code, and bestowed benevolent policies. Every person felt secure; the order is difficult to shake — that is the third point.

"Consider: even with Empress Lü's iron authority, even after she made three Lü clansmen kings and seized all power — the Grand Commandant entered the Northern Army with a single tally, gave one shout, and every soldier bared his left shoulder for the Liu house, turning against the Lü clan and destroying them. This was heaven's mandate, not human effort. Even if the ministers now wished to rebel, the people would not follow them. Could their faction truly hold together?

"At present, within the capital there are the close kinsmen at Zhuixu and Dongmou; without, there is the strength of Wu, Chu, Huainan, Langya, Qi, and Dai to be feared. Of Emperor Gaozu's sons, only the King of Huainan and Your Majesty survive. Your Majesty is the eldest, renowned throughout the realm for sagacity, benevolence, and filial devotion. The ministers are following the will of the realm in wishing to welcome Your Majesty. Let Your Majesty have no doubt."

The King of Dai reported to Empress Dowager Bo and deliberated with her, still unable to decide. They divined with the tortoise shell and obtained the hexagram 'Great Traverse.' The diviner interpreted: "'Great Traverse, firm and unyielding' — you shall be king of heaven, glorious as Xia Qi." The King of Dai said: "I am already a king. What other king could I be?" The diviner said: "'King of heaven' means the Son of Heaven."

The King of Dai then sent Empress Dowager Bo's younger brother, Bo Zhao, to visit the Marquis of Jiang. Zhou Bo and the others explained in full their reasons for wishing to enthrone the king. Bo Zhao returned and reported: "It is genuine. There is nothing to doubt." The King of Dai smiled and said to Song Chang: "It is exactly as you said." He ordered Song Chang to ride as his carriage companion, and Zhang Wu with five others to proceed by relay to Chang'an. At Gaoling they halted, and Song Chang was sent ahead to Chang'an to observe the situation.

Song Chang reached the Wei Bridge, where the chancellor and all below him were waiting to receive the king. Song Chang returned and reported. The King of Dai drove to the Wei Bridge, where the assembled ministers bowed and addressed him as sovereign. The King of Dai descended from his carriage and returned their bows.

The Grand Commandant Zhou Bo stepped forward and said: "I request a private word." Song Chang replied: "If what you wish to say is a public matter, say it publicly. If it is private, a king does not receive private communications." The Grand Commandant then knelt and presented the imperial seals and tallies. The King of Dai demurred: "Let us discuss this at the Dai residence."

They drove to the Dai residence, and the ministers followed. Chancellor Chen Ping, Grand Commandant Zhou Bo, Grand General Chen Wu, Imperial Secretary Zhang Cang, Director of the Imperial Clan Liu Ying, the Marquis of Zhuixu Liu Zhang, the Marquis of Dongmou Liu Xingju, and the Director of Guests Liu Jie all prostrated themselves twice and said: "Hong and the others are not true sons of Emperor Hui and are unfit to carry on the ancestral sacrifices. We have deliberated with the Marquise of Yin'an, the assembled marquises, the Queen Dowager of King Qing, the King of Langya, the imperial clan, the senior ministers, the marquises, and all officials of two-thousand-bushel rank, and they agree: 'His Majesty, as the eldest son of Emperor Gaozu, should be Gaozu's heir.' We request that Your Majesty ascend to the position of Son of Heaven."

The King of Dai replied: "To carry on the ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu is a weighty matter. I am without talent and unworthy of the ancestral temple. I ask that you consult the King of Chu on who is best suited — I dare not accept."

The ministers all prostrated themselves and pressed their case. The King of Dai declined three times facing west, then twice more facing south. Chancellor Chen Ping and the others said: "We have considered the matter carefully. Your Majesty is the most fitting person to carry on Emperor Gaozu's ancestral temple — the feudal lords and the myriad people of the realm agree. We are acting for the sake of the ancestral temples and the altars of state, and we dare not be negligent. We beg Your Majesty to hear us." They reverently presented the imperial seals and tallies with a double bow.

The King of Dai said: "Since the imperial clan, the generals, the chancellors, the kings, and the marquises all deem no one more suitable than myself, I dare not refuse." He thereupon ascended to the position of Son of Heaven.

The ministers attended in ceremonial order. The Grand Coachman Xiahou Ying and the Marquis of Dongmou Xingju were sent to clear the palace and prepare the full imperial carriage procession to bring the Emperor from the Dai residence. That same evening, the Emperor entered the Weiyang Palace.

That night, he appointed Song Chang as General of the Guard to take control of the Northern and Southern Armies. Zhang Wu was made Prefect of the Gentlemen, overseeing the palace interior. The Emperor took his seat in the Front Hall and issued a nighttime edict:

"Recently the Lü clan seized power and plotted high treason, intending to endanger the ancestral temples of the Liu house. Thanks to the generals, chancellors, marquises, imperial clansmen, and senior ministers, they were destroyed and punished for their crimes. We have just ascended the throne. Let there be a general amnesty. Grant every commoner a promotion of one rank. For every hundred households of women, bestow an ox and wine. Permit a public festival of five days."

In the tenth month of Emperor Wen's first year, on the gengshu day, the former King of Langya, Liu Ze, was transferred and installed as King of Yan. On the xinhai day, the Emperor formally ascended the imperial dais and presented himself at the Temple of Gaozu. Right Chancellor Chen Ping was transferred to Left Chancellor; Grand Commandant Zhou Bo became Right Chancellor; Grand General Guan Ying became Grand Commandant. All territories seized from Qi and Chu by the Lü clan were restored.

On the renzi day, the Chariot and Cavalry General Bo Zhao was sent to fetch the Empress Dowager from Dai. The Emperor declared: "Lü Chan appointed himself Chancellor of State, Lü Lu made himself Supreme General. They forged orders to send General Guan Ying to attack Qi, intending to replace the Liu house. Guan Ying halted at Xingyang and refused to fight; he joined the feudal lords in plotting to destroy the Lü clan. When Lü Chan attempted his coup, Chancellor Chen Ping and Grand Commandant Zhou Bo conspired to seize the Lü armies. The Marquis of Zhuixu, Liu Zhang, was first to capture Lü Chan and his followers. The Grand Commandant personally led the Marquis of Xiangping, Tong, bearing the tally on imperial authority, into the Northern Army. The Director of Guests, Liu Jie, personally seized the seal of Lü Lu, King of Zhao.

"The Grand Commandant Zhou Bo shall receive an additional fief of ten thousand households and a grant of five thousand catties of gold. Chancellor Chen Ping and General Guan Ying shall each receive three thousand additional households and two thousand catties of gold. The Marquis of Zhuixu Liu Zhang, the Marquis of Xiangping Tong, and the Marquis of Dongmou Liu Xingju shall each receive two thousand additional households and one thousand catties of gold. The Director of Guests Liu Jie is enfeoffed as Marquis of Yangxin with a grant of one thousand catties of gold."

In the twelfth month, the Emperor said: "The law is the standard of governance, meant to prohibit violence and guide good people. Yet now, after a criminal has been convicted and punished, his innocent parents, wife, children, and siblings are made to share his guilt, and their property is confiscated. I find this deeply objectionable. Let it be deliberated."

The officials all said: "The common people cannot govern themselves, so the law was created to restrain them. Collective punishment binds the hearts of families together, making people think twice before breaking the law. This practice has ancient precedent. It is best left as it is."

The Emperor said: "I have heard that when the law is just, the people are honest; when punishments fit the crime, the people comply. Those who shepherd the people and guide them toward goodness are the officials. If the officials cannot guide them, and on top of that punish them with unjust laws — this is to harm the very people they are meant to protect, to inflict violence upon them. How does this prevent crime? I do not see its benefit. Deliberate further."

The officials all said: "Your Majesty bestows great benevolence. Your virtue is immense — beyond what we can match. We respectfully accept the edict and shall abolish the laws on confiscation and collective punishment."

In the first month, the officials petitioned: "Establishing the heir apparent early is the way to honor the ancestral temples. We request that the heir be named." The Emperor replied: "I am without virtue. The gods and spirits above have not yet been pleased by my offerings; the people below have not yet been fully satisfied. If I cannot search the whole realm for a sage of surpassing virtue and yield the throne to him, and instead I rush to designate my own son as heir — this only compounds my lack of virtue. What would the realm think? Let the matter rest."

The officials said: "Establishing the heir early is how one gives weight to the ancestral temples and altars of state, and shows one does not neglect the realm." The Emperor said: "The King of Chu is my uncle — advanced in years, he has seen much of the realm's principles and understands the fundamentals of statecraft. The King of Wu is like an elder brother to me — benevolent, humane, and devoted to virtue. The King of Huainan is my younger brother — he holds fast to virtue and supports me. With such men, how can succession be unprovided for? Among the feudal kings, the imperial clan, and the kinsmen, there are many men of ability and virtue. If one of merit were selected to support my own deficiencies, that would be a blessing to the altars of state and a joy to the realm. To ignore such men and insist on my own son — people would think I have forgotten the worthy and the virtuous and care only about my own line. That is not how one shows concern for the realm. I find it deeply objectionable."

The officials pressed their case: "In ancient times, the Yin and Zhou dynasties each endured over a thousand years of stable rule — longer than any other dynasty. They achieved this through this very principle. Establishing the heir through the son has deep precedent. Emperor Gaozu personally led the officers and officials to pacify the realm, installed the feudal lords, and became the dynastic founder. The feudal kings and marquises who first received their states likewise became their states' founders. Sons and grandsons succeed one another, generation after generation without break — this is the great principle of the realm, which Gaozu established to bring peace to all within the seas. To set aside the proper heir and choose instead from the feudal lords and clan — this was not Gaozu's intent. Further debate is unnecessary. Your eldest son is pure, generous, compassionate, and humane. We request he be established as heir apparent."

The Emperor consented. He also granted a promotion of one rank to every commoner in the realm who was due to succeed his father. General Bo Zhao was enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhi.

In the third month, the officials requested that an empress be installed. Empress Dowager Bo said: "The feudal lords are all of the same surname. Let the mother of the heir apparent be made empress." The empress's surname was Dou.

Because of the installation of the empress, the Emperor distributed cloth, silk, rice, and meat in fixed quantities to all widowers, widows, orphans, the childless elderly, the destitute, those over eighty, and orphaned children under nine throughout the realm.

Having come from Dai and just ascended the throne, the Emperor bestowed benevolent policies throughout the realm, pacified the feudal lords, and brought harmony with the four barbarian peoples. He then turned to rewarding those who had accompanied him from Dai. The Emperor said: "When the ministers were destroying the Lü clan and summoning me, I was full of doubt, and my advisors all urged me not to go. Only the Colonel Song Chang encouraged me. Through him, I was able to come and carry on the ancestral temples. I have already made Song Chang General of the Guard; let him now be enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhuangwu. The six men who accompanied me shall all be promoted to the rank of Nine Ministers."

The Emperor said: "The sixty-eight marquises who followed Emperor Gaozu into Shu and Hanzhong shall each receive an additional three hundred households. The former officials of two-thousand-bushel rank and above who followed Gaozu — the ten men including Zun, Governor of Yingchuan — shall receive six hundred households each. The ten men including Shentu Jia, Governor of Huaiyang, shall receive five hundred each. The ten men including Ding, the Commander of the Palace Guard, shall receive four hundred each. Zhao Jian, maternal uncle of the King of Huainan, is enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhouyang. Si Jun, maternal uncle of the King of Qi, is enfeoffed as Marquis of Qingguo."

In the autumn, the former Chancellor of Changshan, Cai Jian, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Fan.

Someone advised the Right Chancellor: "You led the destruction of the Lü clan and brought the King of Dai to the throne. But now you flaunt your achievements, accept the highest rewards, and hold the most exalted position — disaster will find you." The Right Chancellor Zhou Bo thereupon pleaded illness and resigned. The Left Chancellor Chen Ping served as sole chancellor.

In the tenth month of the second year, Chancellor Chen Ping died. Zhou Bo was again appointed chancellor. The Emperor said: "I have heard that in antiquity, over a thousand feudal lords established their states, each guarding his own territory and paying tribute at the proper times. The people were not burdened, superiors and inferiors alike were content, and no virtue went unrewarded. Today many marquises reside in Chang'an, far from their fiefs. Their officials and soldiers bear heavy costs transporting supplies, and the marquises themselves have no way to instruct and civilize their people. Let the marquises go to their states. Those retained for official duties or by imperial order shall send their heirs instead."

On the last day of the eleventh month, there was a solar eclipse. On the full moon of the twelfth month, there was another eclipse. The Emperor said: "I have heard that heaven gives birth to the teeming multitudes and sets rulers over them to nurture and govern them. When the ruler lacks virtue and distributes his policies unevenly, heaven sends calamities as a warning against misrule. On the last day of the eleventh month, the sun was eclipsed — a sign displayed in the heavens. What calamity could be greater?

"I have been entrusted with the ancestral temples and, with my insignificant person, placed above the millions as their sovereign. The order or disorder of the realm rests upon me alone; the two or three ministers in government are my limbs. Below, I have failed to nurture and sustain the multitudes; above, I have dimmed the radiance of the three luminaries. My lack of virtue is great indeed. When this edict arrives, let everyone reflect deeply on my faults and errors — and whatever you know, see, or think of that I have not considered, I beg you to tell me. Recommend men of worth, integrity, and uprightness who can speak frankly and remonstrate fearlessly, to correct my deficiencies. Let each of you attend diligently to your duties and strive to reduce corvée labor and expenses to ease the people's burden.

"I have not been able to extend virtue to distant regions, and so I have anxiously contemplated threats from abroad — this is why military preparations have not ceased. Even if we cannot yet disband the border garrisons, we need not strengthen the capital guard. Let the Army of the General of the Guard be disbanded. The Grand Coachman's horses shall be kept only in sufficient numbers; the rest shall be distributed to the relay stations."

In the first month, the Emperor said: "Agriculture is the foundation of the realm. Let the imperial fields be opened, and I shall personally lead the plowing, to provide grain for the ancestral temple offerings."

In the third month, the officials requested that the Emperor's sons be made feudal kings. The Emperor said: "King You of Zhao died a prisoner's death, and I deeply pity him. I have already made his eldest son Sui the King of Zhao. Sui's younger brother Biqiang, along with the Marquis of Zhuixu Zhang and the Marquis of Dongmou Xingju — sons of King Daohui of Qi — have rendered service and deserve to be made kings." He therefore made Biqiang, the younger son of King You of Zhao, King of Hejian. Using the Ju commandery of Qi, he made the Marquis of Zhuixu King of Chengyang, and the Marquis of Dongmou King of Jibei. Among his own sons, Wu was made King of Dai, Can King of Taiyuan, and Yi King of Liang.

The Emperor said: "In the governance of antiquity, the court had the Banner of Advancing Goodness and the Wood of Criticism, by which the channels of governance were kept open and remonstrators were welcomed. Today the law punishes 'slander' and 'seditious speech.' This prevents ministers from speaking their minds and leaves the sovereign with no way to learn of his faults. How then can worthy men from distant regions be attracted to serve? Let these laws be abolished. When commoners curse the emperor as part of some private quarrel and then cheat each other, officials treat it as high treason. When there is other loose talk, officials call it slander. These are ignorant common folk stumbling to their deaths — I find it deeply objectionable. From now on, anyone who commits these offenses shall not be prosecuted."

In the ninth month, for the first time bronze tiger tallies and bamboo envoy tallies were issued to the commandery and kingdom governors and chancellors.

On the last day of the tenth month of the third year, a dingsi day, there was a solar eclipse. In the eleventh month, the Emperor said: "Previously I ordered the marquises to go to their fiefs, but some made excuses and have not departed. The chancellor is the man I esteem most highly. Let him lead the marquises to their states on my behalf." Zhou Bo, Marquis of Jiang, was dismissed as chancellor and sent to his fief. The Grand Commandant Guan Ying, Marquis of Yingyin, was made chancellor. The office of Grand Commandant was abolished, and its functions were absorbed by the chancellor.

In the fourth month, King Zhang of Chengyang died. The King of Huainan, Chang, together with his attendant Wei Jing, killed the Marquis of Biyang, Shen Yiji.

In the fifth month, the Xiongnu invaded the Northern Commandery and occupied territory south of the Yellow River, raiding and plundering. The Emperor traveled for the first time to Ganquan. In the sixth month, the Emperor declared: "Han and the Xiongnu agreed to be as brothers, and we ensured that neither would harm the other's borders. Our gifts to the Xiongnu have been generous. Now the Right Worthy King has left his territory and led his host to occupy the surrendered lands south of the river — a violation of normal practice. They range near the frontier, capture and kill our officers and soldiers, drive away the surrendered barbarians who guard our borders and prevent them from living in their accustomed places, trample our border officials, and cross in to pillage. This is arrogance without principle, and a violation of the treaty. Let eighty-five thousand frontier cavalry be mobilized to Gaonu. Dispatch the Chancellor, Guan Ying, Marquis of Yingyin, to strike the Xiongnu."

The Xiongnu withdrew. The Emperor mobilized the Colonel's elite troops and placed them under the General of the Guard to garrison Chang'an.

On the xinmao day, the Emperor traveled from Ganquan to Gaonu, then proceeded to Taiyuan, where he met with his former ministers and bestowed gifts upon them all. He assessed their services and distributed rewards. Every village received oxen and wine. The people of Jinyang and Zhongdu were exempted from taxes for three years. He stayed and toured Taiyuan for over ten days.

The King of Jibei, Xingju, heard that the Emperor had gone to Dai and intended to march against the Xiongnu. He seized the opportunity to rebel, raising troops with the aim of capturing Xingyang. The Emperor issued an edict disbanding the chancellor's expeditionary force and dispatched the Marquis of Jipu, Chen Wu, as Grand General with a hundred thousand men to strike the rebel. The Marquis of Qi, He, was made general and garrisoned at Xingyang.

On the xinhai day of the seventh month, the Emperor returned from Taiyuan to Chang'an. He issued an edict to the officials: "The King of Jibei has betrayed virtue and rebelled against the throne, deceiving and leading astray his officials and people. This is high treason. Those Jibei officials and commoners who surrendered before their troops arrived, and those who submitted their military forces, territories, or cities, are all pardoned and restored to their former offices and ranks. Even those who went back and forth with King Xingju are pardoned."

In the eighth month, the Jibei army was defeated and the king captured. All officials and commoners in Jibei who had joined the rebellion were pardoned.

In the sixth year, the officials reported that the King of Huainan, Chang, had violated the laws of the late Emperor, refused to obey imperial edicts, lived without restraint, traveled with the ceremonial trappings of the Son of Heaven, promulgated his own laws, conspired with the heir of the Marquis of Jipu named Qi to rebel, and sent emissaries to the Minyue and the Xiongnu to raise their troops — intending to endanger the ancestral temples and altars of state. The ministers deliberated and unanimously declared: "Chang deserves public execution." The Emperor could not bear to impose the law upon a brother. He pardoned Chang's crimes but stripped him of his kingship. The ministers requested that he be exiled to Yandao or Qiongdu in Shu. The Emperor agreed. Chang never reached his place of exile — he fell ill and died on the road. The Emperor pitied him. Sixteen years later, he posthumously honored Liu Chang with the title King Li and installed three of his sons as King of Huainan, King of Hengshan, and King of Lujiang.

In the summer of the thirteenth year, the Emperor said: "I have heard that in the way of heaven, disaster arises from resentment and fortune springs from virtue. When officials err, the fault should rest with me. Yet now the Office of Secret Prayers transfers blame onto my subordinates to display my lack of virtue. I find this deeply objectionable. Let the practice be abolished."

In the fifth month, Chunyu, the Prefect of the Grand Granary of Qi, was convicted of a crime warranting mutilation. He was arrested and transferred to Chang'an for punishment. The Prefect had no sons, only five daughters. As he was about to be taken away, he cursed his daughters: "I sired children but not a single son — in a crisis, not one of you is any use!"

His youngest daughter, Ti Ying, wept with grief. She accompanied her father to Chang'an and submitted a memorial to the throne: "My father served as an official, and throughout Qi he was praised as honest and fair. Now he has been convicted and faces mutilation. What grieves me is that the dead cannot be brought back to life, and the mutilated cannot be made whole. Even if one wishes to reform and start anew, the road is closed. I am willing to enter government servitude as a slave to redeem my father's punishment, so that he may have the chance to begin again."

The memorial was presented to the Son of Heaven. The Emperor was moved by the compassion in her words and issued an edict: "I have heard that in the time of the Sage Emperor Shun, offenders were marked merely by distinctive clothing and insignia, and the people did not transgress. Why? Because governance had reached perfection. Today the law prescribes three forms of mutilating punishment, yet crime does not cease. Where lies the fault? Is it not that my virtue is thin and my instruction unclear? I am deeply ashamed.

"When the way of moral guidance is impure, ignorant people fall into crime. The Odes say: 'The gracious gentleman is father and mother to the people.' Yet now when a person errs, no instruction has been given before punishment is inflicted. Some wish to change their ways and do good, but the road has been cut off. I pity them deeply.

"Punishments that sever limbs, carve into flesh, and leave marks that never heal for a lifetime — how cruel and how devoid of virtue! How can this be worthy of one who claims to be father and mother to the people? Let the mutilating punishments be abolished."

In the winter of the fourteenth year, the Xiongnu plotted to invade the frontier. They attacked the Chao fortress and killed Ang, the commandant of the Northern Commandery. The Emperor dispatched three generals to garrison Longxi, the Northern Commandery, and Shang Commandery. The Colonel Zhou She was made General of the Guard, and the Prefect of the Gentlemen Zhang Wu was made Chariot and Cavalry General. They were stationed north of the Wei River with a thousand chariots and a hundred thousand cavalry and infantry. The Emperor personally inspected the troops, reviewed the formations, issued orders, and distributed gifts to the officers and soldiers.

The Emperor wished to take personal command and strike the Xiongnu. His ministers remonstrated, but he would not listen. Empress Dowager Bo firmly insisted, and the Emperor relented. He then appointed the Marquis of Dongyang, Zhang Xiangru, as Grand General, the Marquis of Cheng, Chi, as Metropolitan Governor, and Luan Bu as general, and they struck the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu fled.

In the spring, the Emperor said: "I have held the sacrificial animals, the jade tablets, and the silk offerings to serve High God and the ancestral temples for fourteen years now. The days have been long. With neither ability nor wisdom, I have presided over the realm for too long, and I am deeply ashamed. Let all sacrificial altars, grounds, and jade and silk offerings be expanded.

"The ancient sage kings bestowed their bounty far and wide without seeking return; they performed the distance-sacrifices without praying for personal blessings. They honored the worthy and set aside their kin; they put the people before themselves. This was the height of enlightened rule. Now I hear that the sacrificial officials, in their blessings and prayers, direct all good fortune to me personally and not to the people. I am deeply ashamed. For one so lacking in virtue as myself to enjoy blessings alone while the people receive none — this only deepens my unworthiness. Let the sacrificial officials show reverence but make no prayers for personal benefit."

In the fifteenth year, a yellow dragon appeared at Chengji. The Emperor summoned Gongsun Chen of Lu, appointed him Court Academician, and instructed him to explicate the matter of the Earth Phase. The Emperor issued an edict: "A divine creature of unusual form has appeared at Chengji. It has done no harm to the people, and the year's harvest has been abundant. I shall personally perform the suburban sacrifice to High God and the various spirits. Let the ritual officials deliberate, and do not hesitate to burden me."

The ritual officials all said: "In antiquity, the Son of Heaven personally performed the suburban sacrifice to High God in the summer. This is why it is called the 'suburban sacrifice.'" The Emperor thereupon traveled for the first time to Yong, where he performed the suburban sacrifice to the Five Emperors, using the early summer month of the fourth month as the ritual response. A man from Zhao named Xingyuan Ping gained an audience on the strength of his cloud-divination skills. He persuaded the Emperor to establish five temples on the north bank of the Wei and predicted that the Zhou Ding — the sacred bronze tripods — would be recovered, heralded by the appearance of a jade blossom.

In the sixteenth year, the Emperor personally performed the suburban sacrifice at the Five Emperors' temples on the Wei's north bank, again in summer, and honored the color red.

In the seventeenth year, a jade cup was discovered, inscribed with the words "May the sovereign's life be prolonged." The Emperor declared a new era year and ordered a grand festival throughout the realm. That same year, Xingyuan Ping's frauds were exposed, and he was executed along with three generations of his family.

In the second year of the new era, the Emperor said: "I lack wisdom and have been unable to extend virtue to distant places. This is why the nations beyond our borders have not found peace. When those in the outer wilderness cannot live in security, and those within the imperial domain are burdened with toil, the fault for both lies in the thinness of my virtue and my inability to reach far.

"For years now, the Xiongnu have repeatedly ravaged the frontier, killing many officials and common people. The border commanders and soldiers, moreover, have failed to understand my inner intentions, which only deepens my unworthiness. When hostilities drag on and armies are perpetually engaged, how can either the Chinese state or the outer kingdoms find peace?

"Rising early and retiring late, I labor for the realm, anxious and fearful for the myriad people, never forgetting them for a single day. I have therefore sent envoy after envoy, their carriage-canopies within sight of one another along the road, to convey my intentions to the Chanyu.

"Now the Chanyu has returned to the ancient way, calculated what brings security to his state and benefit to his people, and together with me has set aside minor grievances to walk the great road, forging the bond of brotherhood to preserve the lives of the common people of all under heaven. The peace-through-marriage agreement is settled, beginning from this year."

In the winter of the sixth year of the new era, thirty thousand Xiongnu invaded Shang Commandery and another thirty thousand invaded Yunzhong. The Middle Counselor Lingmian was made Chariot and Cavalry General and garrisoned at Feihu. The former Chu chancellor Su Yi was made general and garrisoned at Juzhu. General Zhang Wu was stationed at the Northern Commandery. The Governor of Henei, Zhou Yafu, was made general and stationed at Xiliu. The Director of the Imperial Clan Liu Li was made general and stationed at Bashang. The Marquis of Zhuzi garrisoned the Jimen Pass. All this was to defend against the barbarians.

After several months, the Xiongnu withdrew, and the armies were also disbanded. The realm suffered drought and locusts. The Emperor extended his benevolence: he ordered the feudal lords to cease paying tribute, opened the mountains and marshes for public use, reduced the imperial wardrobe and the number of horses and dogs, cut the number of palace attendants, opened the granaries to relieve the destitute, and allowed the people to sell their ranks.

On the jihai day of the sixth month of the seventh year of the new era, the Emperor died in the Weiyang Palace. His testament read:

"I have heard that among all things born under heaven, there is not one that does not die. Death is the principle of heaven and earth, the natural course of things — why should there be excessive grief? In our time, people prize life and abhor death. They bankrupt themselves with lavish burials and harm the living with prolonged mourning. I find this deeply objectionable.

"Moreover, I have been without virtue and unable to aid the hundred families. If now, upon my death, I impose heavy mourning and prolonged lamentation — forcing people to endure heat and cold, causing fathers and sons to grieve, wounding the spirits of young and old, diminishing their food and drink, and cutting off the sacrifices to the spirits — this would only compound my unworthiness. What would the realm think of me?

"I have been blessed to preserve the ancestral temples and, with my insignificant person, to have been placed above the realm as sovereign for more than twenty years. Through the favor of heaven and earth and the fortune of the altars of state, peace has reigned within our borders and there has been no warfare. I have always been without ability, constantly fearing that my conduct would fall short and bring shame to the legacy of the late Emperor. As the years lengthened, I grew afraid I would not end well. Now I have the good fortune to die at heaven's appointed time and to return to the service of the Temple of Gaozu. That I, so lacking in wisdom, should receive this grace — what cause is there for grief?

"Let all officials and commoners throughout the realm mourn for three days from the day this decree arrives, then remove their mourning garments. Let there be no prohibitions on marriage, sacrifice, wine-drinking, or meat-eating. Those who serve at the funeral shall not cut their garments. Mourning sashes shall not exceed three inches. Do not drape chariots or weapons in white. Do not conscript men and women to wail at the palace. Those within the palace who are to mourn shall raise their voices fifteen times each at morning and evening, and stop when the rite is done. Outside the morning and evening sessions, spontaneous wailing is forbidden.

"After the interment, wear the greater red for fifteen days, the lesser red for fourteen days, and the finest gauze for seven days, then remove all mourning dress. Anything not covered by this decree shall follow its spirit. Proclaim this throughout the realm so that all clearly understand my intent. At Ba Mausoleum, let the hills and streams be left in their natural state — change nothing. Return all ladies from the rank of furen down to shaoshi to their homes."

He ordered the Colonel Zhou Yafu to serve as Chariot and Cavalry General, the Dependent States commander Han to serve as Garrison General, and the Prefect of the Gentlemen Wu to serve as General of Refilling the Earth. Sixteen thousand soldiers were levied from nearby counties and fifteen thousand from the capital district, all assigned to General Wu to excavate the outer chamber, inter the coffin, and seal the tomb.

On the yisi day, the ministers all prostrated themselves and presented the posthumous title: Emperor Xiao Wen.

The heir apparent was enthroned at the Temple of Gaozu. On the dingwei day, he assumed the title of Emperor.

The Grand Historian remarks: Confucius said, "It takes a full generation before benevolence takes hold. If a good man governed a state for a hundred years, he could overcome cruelty and do away with killing." How true these words are! From the founding of the Han dynasty to Emperor Wen, over forty years had passed, and virtue reached its fullest flowering. There were signs that the time was ripe to reform the calendar, change the official vestments, and perform the Feng and Shan sacrifices — yet out of modesty and deference, these were not carried through. Alas — was this not the very essence of benevolence!