孝武本紀

Emperor Wu was the middle son of Emperor Jing. His mother was Empress Dowager Wang. In the fourth year of Emperor Jing's reign, he was made King of Jiaodong as an imperial prince. In the seventh year of Emperor Jing, Crown Prince Li was deposed and made King of Linjiang, and the King of Jiaodong was established as crown prince. In the sixteenth year of Emperor Jing's reign, the Emperor died, and the Crown Prince ascended the throne as Emperor Wu. When Emperor Wu first came to the throne, he was especially devoted to the worship of ghosts and spirits.

In the first year, the Han dynasty had been established for over sixty years. All-Under-Heaven was at peace, and the officials in their sashes and caps all hoped the Son of Heaven would perform the feng and shan sacrifices and reform the calendar and institutions. The Emperor inclined toward Confucian learning. He recruited men of talent, and scholars such as Zhao Wan and Wang Zang were appointed as high ministers. They proposed to follow ancient precedent by building a Bright Hall south of the capital in which to receive the feudal lords at court, and began drafting plans for imperial inspection tours, feng and shan sacrifices, and changes to the calendar and ritual colors — but none of this was completed. It happened that Empress Dowager Dou followed the doctrines of Huang-Lao and did not favor Confucian learning. She sent agents who uncovered corrupt dealings by Zhao Wan and the others. Zhao Wan and Wang Zang were summoned for investigation; both committed suicide, and all their initiatives were abolished.

Six years later, Empress Dowager Dou died. The following year, the Emperor summoned scholars of literature and learning, including Gongsun Hong.

The year after that, the Emperor first visited Yong, where he performed the suburban sacrifice at the Five Altars. Thereafter he regularly performed this sacrifice once every three years. At this time the Emperor sought the Spirit Lady, and housed her in the Fan Family Lodge within the Shanglin Park. The Spirit Lady had been a woman of Changling. Because she had grieved so bitterly at the death of her child, her spirit manifested itself through her sister-in-law Wan Ruo. Wan Ruo made offerings to her spirit in her own chambers, and many commoners came to worship there. The Lord of Pingyuan went to worship, and afterward his descendants rose to honor and prominence. When Emperor Wu came to the throne, he treated the spirit with lavish rites and installed her shrine within the inner palace. Her words could be heard, but no person was visible.

At this time, Li Shaojun also gained an audience with the Emperor by means of his techniques for sacrificing to the stove god, the grain-way diet, and methods of reversing old age. The Emperor honored him. Li Shaojun had formerly entered the service of the Marquis of Shenze as master of recipes. He concealed his age and birthplace, always claiming to be seventy years old, able to command objects and reverse aging. He traveled among the feudal lords, presenting his arts everywhere. He had no wife or children. When people heard he could command objects and cheat death, they vied to send him gifts, so that he always had surplus gold, cash, silk, clothing, and food. Since everyone saw that he amassed wealth without managing any estate, and since no one knew where he came from, they believed in him all the more and competed to serve him. Li Shaojun had a natural talent for esoteric arts and was skilled at ingenious demonstrations that hit their mark astonishingly. Once, while drinking at the home of the Marquis of Wu'an, there was an old man of over ninety among the guests. Li Shaojun described the places where the old man's grandfather used to hunt — and the old man, who as a child had accompanied his grandfather, recognized every place. The entire gathering was astounded. On another occasion, when Li Shaojun was received by the Emperor, the Emperor had an old bronze vessel and asked him about it. Li Shaojun said, 'This vessel was displayed in the Cypress Chamber by Duke Huan of Qi in his tenth year.' When they checked the inscription, it was indeed a vessel of Duke Huan of Qi. The entire palace was astonished, and everyone believed Li Shaojun was a divine being, hundreds of years old.

Li Shaojun said to the Emperor: 'If you sacrifice to the stove god, you can attract spirit beings. Once spirit beings are attracted, cinnabar can be transmuted into gold. Once gold is made, fashion it into vessels for eating and drinking and your life will be prolonged. With prolonged life, the immortals of Penglai in the sea can be seen. Once you have seen them, perform the feng and shan sacrifices, and you will never die — this is what the Yellow Emperor did. Your servant once traveled over the seas and met Anqi Sheng. He fed me dates as large as melons. Anqi Sheng is an immortal who dwells in Penglai; when the time is right he appears to men, and when it is not, he hides himself.' Thereupon the Son of Heaven for the first time personally sacrificed to the stove god. He dispatched fangshi to sail into the sea seeking Penglai and Anqi Sheng and their kind, and he set about the work of transmuting cinnabar and various drugs into gold.

After a considerable time, Li Shaojun fell ill and died. The Son of Heaven believed he had merely transformed and departed rather than truly dying, and he ordered Huang Zhui and the Ritual Official Kuan Shu to carry on his methods. The search for Penglai and Anqi Sheng proved fruitless, yet the eccentric fangshi along the coasts of Yan and Qi increasingly imitated one another, each claiming to speak of divine matters.

A man of Bo named Miu Ji memorialized the throne with a method for sacrificing to Grand Unity. He said: 'The most exalted of the celestial spirits is Grand Unity. Grand Unity's assistants are called the Five Emperors. In antiquity the Son of Heaven sacrificed to Grand Unity in the southeastern suburbs in spring and autumn, using a full set of the three great sacrificial animals, for seven days, building an altar with eight open spirit-roads.' Thereupon the Son of Heaven ordered the Grand Invocator to establish a shrine in the southeastern suburbs of Chang'an, and to maintain regular sacrifices according to Miu Ji's method. Later someone submitted a memorial stating: 'In antiquity the Son of Heaven once every three years used a full set of the three great animals to sacrifice to the Three Unities: Celestial Unity, Terrestrial Unity, and Grand Unity.' The Son of Heaven approved this and ordered the Grand Invocator to conduct the rites on Miu Ji's Grand Unity altar according to this method. Still later, another person submitted a memorial stating: 'In antiquity the Son of Heaven regularly performed expiatory sacrifices in spring and autumn. To sacrifice to the Yellow Emperor, use one owl and a broken mirror. For the Dark Sheep, use a sheep. To sacrifice to the Horse Traveler, use one blue-grey stallion. For Grand Unity, the Lord of Gao Mountain, and the Lord of the Earth, use an ox. For the Lord of Wuyi, use dried fish. For the Emissary of Yin and Yang, use one ox.' The Emperor ordered the ritual officials to conduct these rites according to their prescriptions, performing them beside Miu Ji's Grand Unity altar.

After this, the Son of Heaven's park contained white deer. He had their hides made into a form of currency to announce the auspicious omen, and also minted white metal coins.

The following year, while performing the suburban sacrifice at Yong, a one-horned beast was captured that resembled a roe deer. The officials said: 'Your Majesty has reverently performed the suburban sacrifices, and the Lord on High has reciprocated your offerings by bestowing a one-horned beast. It is surely a unicorn.' Thereupon it was offered at the Five Altars, and an additional ox was burned at each altar. White metal coins were bestowed on the feudal lords, to broadcast that the omens of Heaven and Earth were in accord.

At this point the King of Jibei, believing the Son of Heaven was about to perform the feng and shan sacrifices, submitted a memorial offering Mount Tai and the towns around it. The Son of Heaven accepted the gift, compensating him with other counties. The King of Changshan had committed an offense and was relocated. The Son of Heaven enfeoffed his brother at Zhending to continue the ancestral sacrifices of the former king, and converted Changshan into a commandery. After this, all Five Sacred Mountains fell within the Son of Heaven's own commanderies.

The following year, a man of Qi named Shaoweng gained an audience with the Emperor through his techniques with ghosts and spirits. The Emperor had a favorite consort, Lady Wang, who had died. Shaoweng, using his arts, managed one night to conjure what appeared to be the likeness of Lady Wang and the stove spirit. The Son of Heaven watched from behind a curtain. Thereupon he appointed Shaoweng as General of Accomplished Literature, showered him with rewards, and treated him with the etiquette due a guest. The General of Accomplished Literature declared: 'If Your Majesty wishes to communicate with the spirits, your palaces and garments must be made to resemble those of the spirits — otherwise the spirit beings will not come.' So he had chariots painted with cloud patterns, and on days astrologically propitious for each element, particular chariots were driven to repel evil spirits. He also built the Ganquan Palace, with a terrace-chamber in its center painted with images of Heaven, Earth, Grand Unity, and the various gods, and furnished with sacrificial implements to attract the celestial spirits. After more than a year, his methods proved increasingly ineffective and no spirits came. He then wrote a text on silk and fed it to an ox, pretending to know nothing about it, and announced that there was something marvelous inside this ox. When the ox was slaughtered and opened, the silk text was found. Its contents were strange — and the Son of Heaven grew suspicious. Someone recognized the handwriting, and upon questioning, it was confirmed to be Shaoweng's own writing. Thereupon the General of Accomplished Literature was executed, but the matter was kept secret.

After this, the Emperor built the Cypress Beam Terrace, bronze pillars, and the statue of an immortal with upraised palm to catch dew, and similar structures.

The year after Shaoweng's death, the Son of Heaven fell gravely ill at Dinghu. Every sort of shaman and physician was summoned, but none could cure him. A man named You Shui Fagen then said: 'In Shangjun there is a shaman to whom spirits descend when he is ill.' The Emperor summoned this shaman and installed him at Ganquan to perform sacrifices. When the Emperor fell ill, he sent someone to consult the Spirit Lord. The Spirit Lord said: 'Let the Son of Heaven not worry about his illness. When the illness has eased somewhat, let him make the effort to come meet me at Ganquan.' Thereupon the illness subsided, and the Emperor went to Ganquan, where the illness was completely cured. A great amnesty was proclaimed throughout All-Under-Heaven, and the Palace of Longevity was established for the Spirit Lord. The most exalted of the Spirit Lord's attendants were called Grand Prohibition, Director of Fate, and others of that kind — all followed the Spirit Lord. The spirits could not be seen, but their voices could be heard, speaking just like ordinary people. They came and went; when they arrived, a solemn wind would stir. They dwelt within curtained chambers. Sometimes they spoke by day, but usually by night. The Son of Heaven performed ritual purification before entering. The shaman served as host, attending to food and drink. Whatever the spirits requested was conveyed and carried out. The Emperor also established the Palace of Longevity and the Northern Palace, with feathered banners hung and offerings set out to honor the Spirit Lord. Whatever the Spirit Lord said, the Emperor had people take down in writing, calling these records the 'Painted Protocols.' What the spirits said was in fact commonplace knowledge, nothing extraordinary — yet the Son of Heaven alone delighted in it. The entire affair was kept secret, and the world knew nothing of it.

Three years later, the officials proposed that era names should be designated by heavenly portents rather than numbered sequentially. The first era was named Jianyuan ('Establishing the Origin'), the second was named Yuanguang ('Original Brilliance') after the appearance of a long comet, and the third was named Yuanshou ('Original Hunting') after the one-horned beast captured during the suburban sacrifice.

The following year, in winter, the Son of Heaven performed the suburban sacrifice at Yong. He deliberated: 'Now I have personally performed the suburban sacrifice to the Lord on High, yet the Sovereign of Earth has received no offering — the ritual exchange is incomplete.' The officials conferred with the Grand Historian and the ritual official Kuan Shu, and they determined: 'The sacrificial animals for Heaven and Earth should have horns no larger than cocoons or chestnuts. Now that Your Majesty personally sacrifices to the Sovereign of Earth, the proper form is to build five altars on a circular mound in a marshy area. Each altar should receive one yellow calf and a full set of the three great animals. After the sacrifice, everything should be buried in the earth, and all attendants at the sacrifice should wear yellow garments over their robes.' Thereupon the Son of Heaven proceeded east and for the first time established a shrine to the Sovereign of Earth on the Fen River mound at Fenyin, following the recommendation of Kuan Shu and the others. The Emperor personally made obeisance from a distance, using the same rites as for the Lord on High. When the ceremonies were completed, the Son of Heaven proceeded to Xingyang and turned back. Passing through Luoyang, he issued an edict: 'The Three Dynasties are remote and distant, hard to preserve. Let thirty li of territory be enfeoffed upon the descendant of the Zhou as Lord Zinan of Zhou, to maintain the ancestral sacrifices of the former kings.' In this year, the Son of Heaven first began touring the commanderies and counties, gradually making his way toward Mount Tai.

That spring, the Marquis of Lecheng submitted a memorial recommending Luan Da. Luan Da was an attendant in the Jiaodong palace who had once studied under the same master as the General of Accomplished Literature, and had subsequently served as director of workshops for the King of Jiaodong. Now, the Marquis of Lecheng's elder sister had been queen to the late King Kang, but she had borne no sons. When King Kang died, the son of another consort was established as king. The former queen had been guilty of licentious conduct and was on bad terms with the new king — each threatened the other with the law. When she heard that the General of Accomplished Literature had been killed, she hoped to ingratiate herself with the Emperor, and so she dispatched Luan Da through the Marquis of Lecheng to seek an audience and present his arts. The Son of Heaven had already executed the General of Accomplished Literature but later regretted having killed him too hastily and lamented that his methods had not been exhausted. When he met Luan Da, he was greatly pleased. Luan Da was tall and handsome, spoke with many stratagems, and made bold claims without the slightest hesitation. He declared: 'Your servant has traveled back and forth across the seas and met Anqi Sheng, Xianmen, and others of their kind. But they considered your servant too lowly and did not trust me. Moreover, they regarded King Kang as a mere feudal lord, unworthy of receiving their arts. Your servant spoke to King Kang repeatedly, but the King would not employ me. My master said: "Gold can be transmuted, the breach in the Yellow River can be sealed, the elixir of immortality can be obtained, and the immortals can be summoned." But I fear that if I meet the same end as the General of Accomplished Literature, every fangshi will clap his mouth shut — who would dare speak of these arts!' The Emperor said: 'The General of Accomplished Literature died from eating horse liver, that is all. If you can truly practice these arts, what would I begrudge?' Luan Da replied: 'My master does not seek out men — men must seek him. If Your Majesty truly wishes to summon him, then you must honor your envoy: give him kinship ties to the imperial house, treat him with the etiquette of a guest, do not demean him, and let him wear his own seal of authority. Only then can he serve as intermediary to speak with the spirit beings. Whether the spirit beings will consent or not depends on this — only by truly honoring the envoy can they be summoned.' Thereupon the Emperor had him first demonstrate a minor art: the contest of chess-piece banners, which moved and struck against each other of their own accord.

At this time the Emperor was anxious about the breach in the Yellow River and frustrated that the gold transmutation had not succeeded. He therefore appointed Luan Da as General of Five Advantages. Within a month, Luan Da had received four golden seals, wearing the titles General of the Celestial Warrior, General of the Terrestrial Warrior, General of Great Penetration, and General of the Celestial Way. The Emperor issued an edict to the Imperial Secretary: 'In antiquity Yu channeled the Nine Rivers and opened the Four Waterways. Recently the Yellow River has overflowed onto the highlands, and the levee corvée has been unceasing. We have presided over All-Under-Heaven for twenty-eight years, and Heaven seems to have sent Us a warrior who achieves great penetration. The Qian hexagram speaks of the "flying dragon," and the Jian hexagram of "the wild goose gradually advancing" — perhaps this is the fulfillment of those signs. Let the General of the Terrestrial Warrior, Luan Da, be enfeoffed as Marquis of Letong with a fief of two thousand households.' He was granted a first-rank marquis's mansion, a thousand servants, and carriages, horses, curtains, and utensils from the imperial stables to fill his residence. Furthermore, the Emperor gave him the Elder Princess Wei in marriage, with a dowry of ten thousand catties of gold, and renamed her fief the Princess of Dangli. The Son of Heaven personally visited the residence of the General of Five Advantages. Envoys bearing gifts of inquiry and provisions followed one another without break upon the road. From the Grand Princess and the Chancellor on down, all held banquets at his mansion and presented him with gifts. The Son of Heaven then had a jade seal carved reading 'General of the Celestial Way,' and sent an envoy in feathered robes to stand upon white rushes by night. The General of Five Advantages also donned feathered robes and stood upon white rushes to receive the seal — signifying that he was not treated as a subject. The one who wore the 'Celestial Way' seal was to serve as the Son of Heaven's guide to the celestial spirits. After this, the General of Five Advantages regularly performed nighttime sacrifices at his residence, attempting to bring down spirits. The spirits did not come, but a hundred lesser ghosts gathered, and he was able to direct them somewhat. He then prepared his traveling gear and went east into the sea, claiming to search for his master. Within a few months of his first audience, Luan Da wore six seals, and his eminence shook All-Under-Heaven. Along the seacoasts between Yan and Qi, there was no one who did not clench his fists with excitement and claim to possess secret arts and the power to become an immortal.

That summer, in the middle of the sixth month, the shaman Jin of Fenyin was performing sacrifices on behalf of the people beside the Sovereign of Earth compound on the Wei mound, when he noticed the ground had a hook-like shape. Digging down, he discovered a tripod. The tripod was greatly different from ordinary tripods — it bore carved designs but no identifying inscription. Finding it strange, he reported it to the local officials. The officials informed the Grand Administrator of Hedong, Sheng, who reported it to the throne. The Son of Heaven sent envoys to verify that the shaman Jin had found the tripod without fraud, and then had it welcomed with proper sacrificial rites to Ganquan Palace. It traveled in the Emperor's procession, and the Emperor presented offerings to it. When they reached Zhongshan, the weather was warm and clear, and a canopy of yellow clouds appeared overhead. A roe deer passed by; the Emperor personally shot it and used it as a sacrifice. When they reached Chang'an, the ministers and grandees all deliberated and requested that the precious tripod be honored. The Son of Heaven said: 'Recently the Yellow River has overflowed and the harvests have failed for several years. That is why I toured and sacrificed to the Sovereign of Earth, praying that grain would be nurtured for the common people. This year the harvest is abundant but I have not yet given thanks — why should a tripod appear now?' The officials all replied: 'We have heard that in high antiquity the Great Emperor raised one divine tripod — one signifying unity, the culmination to which all things between Heaven and Earth are bound. The Yellow Emperor made three precious tripods, symbolizing Heaven, Earth, and Man. Yu collected the metal tribute of the Nine Provinces and cast the Nine Tripods, all of which were used to cook offerings to the Lord on High and the spirits. When they encountered a sage-ruler, they appeared; they passed from the Xia to the Shang. When the virtue of the Zhou declined and the altars of Song fell, the tripods sank from sight and were seen no more. The Odes say: "From hall to foundation stones, from sheep to oxen; the great cauldron and the small, without anxiety or pride — what blessings of old age!" Now the tripod has arrived at Ganquan, gleaming and lustrous, dragon-like in its transformations, bearing blessings without limit. At Zhongshan, yellow and white clouds descended like a canopy; a beast appeared as a talisman; bows and arrows were gathered beneath the altar — an offering-feast in reciprocation. Only one who has received the Mandate and rules as Emperor can understand its meaning in his heart and match its virtue. The tripod should be presented at the ancestral temples and stored in the imperial court, to correspond to this luminous sign.' The Emperor decreed: 'Approved.'

Those who had sailed into the sea seeking Penglai reported that it was not far away, but they had been unable to reach it — perhaps because they could not discern its vapors. The Emperor therefore dispatched vapor-watchers to observe for its emanations.

That autumn, the Emperor went to Yong and was about to perform the suburban sacrifice. Someone said: 'The Five Emperors are merely assistants to Grand Unity. It would be proper to establish Grand Unity and have the Emperor personally perform the suburban sacrifice to it.' The Emperor was uncertain and had not yet decided. A man of Qi named Gongsun Qing said: 'This year a precious tripod has been found, and this winter the xinsi day falls on the first day of the month at the winter solstice — the same alignment as in the time of the Yellow Emperor.' Gongsun Qing possessed a document written on wooden tablets that read: 'The Yellow Emperor obtained a precious tripod at Wan and inquired of Gui Yuqu. Gui Yuqu replied: "The Emperor has obtained the precious tripod and the divine counting-stalks. This year the jiyou day falls on the new moon at the winter solstice — you have obtained the cycle of Heaven, which ends and begins again." Thereupon the Yellow Emperor calculated forward from the solstice using the counting-stalks. Thereafter, approximately every twenty years the new moon coincided with the winter solstice. After twenty such cycles — three hundred and eighty years — the Yellow Emperor ascended to Heaven as an immortal.' Gongsun Qing tried to submit this through Suo Zhong. Suo Zhong examined the document and found it uncanonical, suspecting it was a fabrication. He declined, saying: 'The matter of the precious tripod is already settled — what more is needed!' So Gongsun Qing submitted it through one of the Emperor's favorites instead. The Emperor was overjoyed and summoned Gongsun Qing for questioning. Gongsun Qing replied: 'I received this document from Shen Gong, but Shen Gong is already dead.' The Emperor asked: 'Who was Shen Gong?' Gongsun Qing answered: 'Shen Gong was a man of Qi. He was in communication with Anqi Sheng and received the teachings of the Yellow Emperor. He left no writings except this one document about the tripod. It says: "The rise of the Han corresponds to the era of the Yellow Emperor. The sage of the Han will be found among the grandsons or great-grandsons of the High Ancestor. When the precious tripod appears, he will communicate with the spirits and perform the feng and shan sacrifices. Seventy-two kings performed the feng and shan, but only the Yellow Emperor was able to ascend Mount Tai for the feng sacrifice." Shen Gong said: "The ruler of the Han should also ascend to perform the feng sacrifice. Once he ascends for the feng, he will be able to rise to Heaven as an immortal. In the Yellow Emperor's time there were ten thousand feudal lords, and of those, seven thousand held their fiefs by virtue of their spiritual powers. There are eight famous mountains under Heaven: three are in barbarian lands, and five are in the Central Kingdoms. In the Central Kingdoms these are Mount Hua, Mount Shou, the Great Chamber, Mount Tai, and Donglai — these five mountains the Yellow Emperor regularly visited, and there he met with the spirits. The Yellow Emperor simultaneously waged war and studied the ways of immortality. He was troubled that the common people did not follow his Way, so he executed those who denied the existence of ghosts and spirits. After more than a hundred years he finally achieved communication with the spirits. The Yellow Emperor performed the suburban sacrifice at Yong to the Lord on High, staying for three months. Gui Yuqu, whose title was Grand Protector, died and was buried at Yong — hence the Tumulus of the Protector there. After this, the Yellow Emperor received the myriad spirits at the Bright Court. The Bright Court is Ganquan. What is called Cold Gate is the Valley Mouth. The Yellow Emperor mined copper at Mount Shou and cast a tripod at the foot of Mount Jing. When the tripod was complete, a dragon hung down its whiskers to welcome the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor mounted and rode it aloft. Over seventy of his ministers and palace women followed him onto the dragon, and they rose up and departed. The remaining minor officials who could not climb on all grasped the dragon's whiskers. The whiskers tore loose, and the Yellow Emperor's bow fell to earth. The common people gazed up as the Yellow Emperor ascended to Heaven, then embraced his bow and the dragon's whiskers and wailed. Hence later generations named that place Dinghu — Tripod Lake — and the bow Wuhao — the Raven's Cry."' At this the Son of Heaven exclaimed: 'Ah! If I could truly become like the Yellow Emperor, I would regard leaving my wife and children as no more than casting off a slipper.' He then appointed Gongsun Qing as a Gentleman and sent him east to watch for spirits at the Great Chamber.

The Emperor then performed the suburban sacrifice at Yong, traveled to Longxi, climbed Mount Kongtong to the west, and proceeded to Ganquan. He ordered the ritual official Kuan Shu and others to prepare an altar for sacrificing to Grand Unity. The altar was modeled on Miu Ji's Grand Unity altar, with three concentric tiers. The altars of the Five Emperors were arranged in a ring below, each positioned according to its cardinal direction, with the Yellow Emperor to the southwest. Eight open spirit-roads were cleared. The offerings for Grand Unity followed those of a single altar at Yong, with the addition of sweet wine, dates, dried meat, and similar items. One yak was slaughtered for the sacrificial vessels and animal offerings. The Five Emperors received only sacrificial vessels and sweet wine. Below, on the four sides of the ground, libation-food was set out for the attending lesser gods and the Northern Dipper. After the sacrifice, the remaining consecrated meat was all burned. The ox was white; a deer was placed inside it, and a pig inside the deer, then the whole was immersed in water and boiled. For the sacrifice to the Sun, an ox was used; for the Moon, a sheep and a pig offered singly. The invokers and butchers at the Grand Unity sacrifice wore purple and embroidered garments. For the Five Emperors, each wore the color of his direction; for the Sun, red; for the Moon, white.

On the xinsi day, the first day of the eleventh month at the winter solstice, at first light, the Son of Heaven for the first time performed the suburban sacrifice to Grand Unity. In the morning he saluted the Sun; in the evening he saluted the Moon — each time with a bow. His audience with Grand Unity followed the rites of Yong. The blessing-invocation declared: 'Heaven for the first time bestowed the precious tripod and divine counting-stalks upon the Emperor. New moon follows new moon, ending and beginning again. The Emperor reverently makes obeisance.' He wore yellow over his robes. Rows of fires filled the altar, and beside the altar were cooking vessels. The officials reported: 'There was a radiance above the altar.' The ministers said: 'The Emperor for the first time performed the suburban sacrifice to Grand Unity at Yunyang. The officials presented fine jade and choice animals as offerings. That night there was a beautiful radiance, and by day a yellow vapor rose up and connected with Heaven.' The Grand Historian, the ritual official Kuan Shu, and others said: 'This is the blessing of the divine spirits, an auspicious sign of protective fortune. It would be fitting to establish a Grand Altar on this ground of radiance to correspond to the omen. Let the Grand Invocator administer it, with sacrifices during the winter offering period. Once every three years the Son of Heaven should perform the suburban sacrifice in person.'

That autumn, in preparation for the campaign against Nanyue, prayers were offered to Grand Unity. Banners were painted on vitex wood with images of the Sun, Moon, Northern Dipper, and ascending dragon to represent the three stars of Celestial Unity. These formed the vanguard standard of Grand Unity, called the 'Numinous Banner.' When prayers were offered for military success, the Grand Historian held it aloft and pointed it toward the state to be attacked. Meanwhile, the General of Five Advantages did not dare enter the sea — he went instead to Mount Tai to perform sacrifices. The Emperor sent agents to follow him secretly and observe. In truth, he saw nothing at all. The General of Five Advantages had been lying about meeting his master. His methods were exhausted, and most of his claims had proved false. The Emperor thereupon executed the General of Five Advantages.

That winter, Gongsun Qing went to watch for spirits in Henan. He reported seeing the tracks of an immortal on the walls of Goushi city, and something resembling a pheasant moving back and forth atop the walls. The Son of Heaven personally visited Goushi to inspect the tracks. He asked Gongsun Qing: 'This had better not be another case like the General of Accomplished Literature or the General of Five Advantages.' Gongsun Qing replied: 'Immortals do not seek out rulers — rulers must seek them. Unless some latitude and time are granted to the Way, the spirits will not come. Speaking of spirit matters — the matter may seem roundabout and absurd, but give it years and they can be summoned.' Thereupon the commanderies and kingdoms each cleared their roads and repaired the palaces, lodges, and shrines on the famous mountains, hoping for an imperial visit.

That same year, after the destruction of Nanyue, the Emperor had a favorite courtier named Li Yannian who had gained notice for his musical talent. The Emperor approved of him and submitted the matter to the ministers for deliberation, saying: 'Even folk sacrifices have the music of drums and dancing. Now the suburban sacrifices have no music — how can that be fitting?' The ministers replied: 'In antiquity all sacrifices to Heaven and Earth had music, and thereby the spirits could be properly honored.' Someone added: 'The Great Emperor had the White Maiden play a fifty-stringed zither. The music was so sorrowful that the Emperor forbade it but could not make her stop, so he broke the zither in half to make twenty-five strings.' After this, with the pacification of Nanyue, the sacrifices to Grand Unity and the Sovereign of Earth for the first time employed music and dance. More singers were recruited, and the making of twenty-five-stringed instruments and the konghou harp began from this point.

The following year, in winter, the Emperor deliberated: 'In antiquity, one first reviewed the troops and purified the army, and only then performed the feng and shan sacrifices.' He therefore toured north to Shuofang, mustering over a hundred thousand troops, and on the return journey sacrificed at the Yellow Emperor's tomb on Bridge Mountain and purified his troops at Xuru. The Emperor said: 'I have heard that the Yellow Emperor did not die — yet there is a tomb here. Why is that?' Someone replied: 'The Yellow Emperor had already become an immortal and ascended to Heaven. His ministers buried only his cap and robes.' Upon reaching Ganquan, in preparation for the ceremonies at Mount Tai, he first performed a categorizing sacrifice to Grand Unity.

Ever since obtaining the precious tripod, the Emperor had discussed the feng and shan sacrifices with the ministers and the scholars. Since the feng and shan had not been performed for so long that the tradition had been completely broken, no one knew the proper rites. The assembled Confucian scholars culled passages about the distant-gazing sacrifice and the shooting of the sacrificial ox from the Book of Documents, the Rites of Zhou, and the Royal Regulations. An old man of Qi named Master Ding, over ninety years of age, said: 'The feng is a ceremony that merges with the name of immortality. The First Emperor of Qin was not able to ascend to perform the feng. If Your Majesty is determined to ascend, simply start climbing — if there is no wind or rain, proceed to the top and perform the feng.' The Emperor thereupon ordered the Confucian scholars to practice the shooting of the ox and to draft a feng and shan liturgy. After several years, the time came to carry it out. The Son of Heaven had already heard the claims of Gongsun Qing and the fangshi that the Yellow Emperor and earlier sovereigns who performed the feng and shan had all attracted wondrous beings and communicated with the spirits. He wished to emulate the Yellow Emperor, to encounter immortals and the adepts of Penglai, to transcend his age and match his virtue with that of the Nine Sovereigns — while adopting Confucian learning to ornament the proceedings. But the assembled Confucians were unable to clarify the feng and shan rites, and they were so constrained by the Odes, the Documents, and the ancient texts that they dared not improvise. When the Emperor showed the sacrificial vessels he had designed for the feng ceremony to the Confucians, some said 'These do not match antiquity.' Xu Yan further declared that the scholars of the Grand Master of Ceremonies performed the rites less well than those of Lu. Zhou Ba composed a diagram of the feng ceremony. At this the Emperor dismissed Xu Yan and Zhou Ba, and discharged all the Confucian scholars, refusing to employ them.

In the third month, the Emperor proceeded east to Goushi and ceremonially ascended the central sacred mountain, the Great Chamber. The attendant officials at the foot of the mountain heard what seemed to be a voice crying 'Ten thousand years!' They asked those above — no one had spoken. They asked those below — no one had spoken. Thereupon three hundred households were assigned to serve the Great Chamber shrine, and the place was named the Township of Lofty Eminence. He then went east and ascended Mount Tai. The trees and grasses on the mountain had not yet put forth leaves. He ordered men to carry a stone to the summit of Mount Tai and erect it there.

The Emperor then continued east on a tour along the seacoast, performing sacrificial rites to the Eight Spirits. The people of Qi who submitted memorials claiming knowledge of divine marvels and extraordinary arts numbered in the tens of thousands, yet none produced verifiable results. Even so, the Emperor dispatched yet more ships, sending several thousand people who claimed knowledge of the spirit mountains in the sea to search for the immortals of Penglai. Gongsun Qing, bearing the imperial credentials, regularly went ahead to scout the famous mountains. Arriving at Donglai, he reported that one night he had seen a person several zhang tall — but when he approached, the figure vanished, leaving only enormous tracks resembling those of a bird or beast. Certain ministers reported seeing an old man leading a dog who said, 'I wish to see the Great Lord,' and then suddenly vanished. The Emperor had seen the large tracks but was not yet fully convinced. When the ministers reported the old man, however, he became thoroughly persuaded that these were immortals. He lingered by the sea, and the fangshi dispatched in relay carriages and as secret envoys to seek the immortals numbered in the thousands.

In the fourth month, the Emperor returned to Fenggao. He reflected that the pronouncements of the Confucians and fangshi about the feng and shan all contradicted one another, were uncanonical, and were difficult to put into practice. The Son of Heaven proceeded to Mount Liangfu, where he performed the sacrificial rites to the Lord of the Earth. On the yimao day, he ordered the attending Confucian scholars to don leather caps and sashes and shoot the sacrificial ox to begin the ceremonies. The feng sacrifice was performed at the eastern base of Mount Tai, following the rites of the suburban sacrifice to Grand Unity. The mound of the feng was twelve feet across and nine feet high. Beneath it were placed jade tablets inscribed with a text whose contents were kept secret. When the rites were complete, the Son of Heaven, accompanied only by his attendant and the Chariot-Bearer Zihou, ascended Mount Tai. There too a feng ceremony was performed. All details of this rite were forbidden to be disclosed. The next day, they descended by the northern slope. On the bingchen day, the shan sacrifice was performed on Mount Suran, northeast of the base of Mount Tai, following the rites for sacrificing to the Sovereign of Earth. The Son of Heaven personally made obeisance at every stage, wearing yellow over his robes and employing music throughout. Three-ridged rushes from the region between the Yangtze and Huai Rivers were used as sacred matting. Earth of five colors was added to the mound. Rare beasts from distant lands, exotic birds, white pheasants, and similar creatures were released, and many were used to supplement the offerings. But rhinoceros, yaks, elephants, and their like were not used — all such animals had been brought to Mount Tai and then released. At the feng and shan sacrificial site, that night there seemed to be a radiance, and by day white clouds rose from within the mound.

The Son of Heaven returned from the feng and shan ceremonies and took his seat in the Bright Hall, where the assembled ministers came forward in turn to offer congratulations. He thereupon issued an edict to the Imperial Secretary: 'We, in Our insignificant person, have received the supreme position, and tremble with apprehension lest We prove unequal to it. Our virtue is meager, and We have not been enlightened in matters of ritual and music. Yet when We cultivated the sacrifice to Grand Unity, there seemed to be signs and radiant light, and the omens appeared to accord with Our hopes. Reverently moved by these wonders, We wished to stop but did not dare, and so We ascended to perform the feng on Mount Tai, proceeded to Mount Liangfu, and afterward performed the shan on Mount Suran. Let Us begin anew, and joyfully make a fresh start together with all officials and grandees. We bestow upon the common people one ox for every hundred households and ten shi of wine. To those aged eighty and above, and to orphans and widows, We grant two bolts of cloth and silk. The districts of Bo, Fenggao, Sheqiu, and Licheng are exempted from this year's rent and taxes. Let a general amnesty be proclaimed throughout All-Under-Heaven, following the terms of the yimao amnesty decree. In all places through which the imperial procession passed, let there be no further corvée labor. All cases dating from more than two years ago shall not be heard.' He further decreed: 'In antiquity the Son of Heaven conducted an inspection tour once every five years, performing rites at Mount Tai, and the feudal lords had lodging places for their court attendance. Let the feudal lords each build a residence at the foot of Mount Tai.'

Having completed the feng and shan at Mount Tai without encountering wind, rain, or disaster, the Emperor heard the fangshi say that the spirit mountains of Penglai and the others seemed almost within reach. The Emperor, in joyful anticipation, hoped to encounter them. He proceeded east once more to the seacoast, gazing out and hoping to sight Penglai. The Chariot-Bearer Zihou suddenly fell ill and died within a single day. The Emperor then departed, traveling along the coast, north to Jieshi, then touring from Liaoxi along the northern frontier to Jiuyuan. In the fifth month he returned to Ganquan. The officials declared that since the precious tripod had appeared, the era should have been called Yuanding ('Original Tripod'), and the current year should be designated the first year of Yuanfeng ('Original Feng').

The following year in winter, the Emperor declared: “In antiquity, one first reviewed the troops and purified the army, and only then performed the feng and shan sacrifices.” He then toured north to Shuofang, reviewed over one hundred thousand soldiers, returned to sacrifice at the Yellow Emperor’s tomb on Bridge Mountain, and purified the troops at Xuru. The Emperor said: “I have heard that the Yellow Emperor did not die. Why then is there a tomb?” Someone replied: “The Yellow Emperor had already become an immortal and ascended to heaven. His ministers merely buried his cap and robes.” Upon reaching Ganquan, in preparation for the ceremony at Mount Tai, the Emperor first performed a lei sacrifice to Taiyi.

Ever since the precious tripod had been obtained, the Emperor discussed the feng and shan sacrifices with his ministers and scholars. Because the feng and shan had been so rarely performed, no one knew the proper ritual. The Confucian scholars gathered references to the suburban wang sacrifice and the shooting of the sacrificial ox from the Book of Documents, the Rites of Zhou, and the Royal Regulations. A man of Qi named Master Ding, over ninety years old, said: “The feng sacrifice is connected with the name of immortality. The First Emperor of Qin was unable to ascend to perform the feng. If Your Majesty truly wishes to ascend, go up gradually — if there is no wind or rain, then proceed with the feng ceremony.”

The Emperor thereupon ordered the Confucians to practice the ox-shooting rite and draft a feng and shan ritual. After several years, the time to act arrived. Having heard from Gongsun Qing and the fangshi that all rulers from the Yellow Emperor onward who performed the feng and shan had attracted marvels and communed with the spirits, the Emperor wished to emulate the Yellow Emperor in seeking immortals and the adepts of Penglai, to transcend the age and match his virtue with the Nine Sovereigns of old — and merely to use Confucian learning to ornament the occasion. The Confucian scholars, for their part, could not clearly explain the feng and shan ceremony, and were too constrained by the Odes, the Documents, and the ancient texts to venture freely. When the Emperor displayed the sacrificial vessels he had made, some of the Confucians said: “These do not match the ancient practice.” Xu Yan further said: “The students under the Grand Master of Ceremonies perform the rites less well than those of Lu.” Zhou Ba took it upon himself to draft plans for the feng ceremony. At this, the Emperor dismissed Xu Yan and Zhou Ba and cashiered all the Confucians, refusing to employ them.

In the third month, the Emperor proceeded east to Goushi, where he performed rites and ascended Mount Taishi, the Central Peak. Attendants at the base of the mountain heard what sounded like a voice calling “Ten thousand years!” When asked, those above denied speaking; when asked, those below also denied it. Thereupon three hundred households were enfeoffed to maintain the sacrifices at Mount Taishi, and the place was named Chonggao — “Lofty Heights” — District. The Emperor then went east and ascended Mount Tai. Since the grasses and trees on the mountain had not yet put forth their leaves, he ordered men to haul a stone up and erect it at the summit of Mount Tai.

The Emperor then continued east, touring along the coast and performing sacrificial rites at the shrines of the Eight Spirits. Men of Qi who submitted memorials claiming knowledge of marvels and extraordinary techniques numbered in the tens of thousands, yet none produced any verified results. The Emperor nevertheless dispatched still more ships and ordered several thousand people who claimed knowledge of the divine mountains in the sea to search for the immortals of Penglai.

Gongsun Qing, carrying the imperial tally, constantly traveled ahead to scout the famous mountains. Arriving at Donglai, he reported that at night he had seen a figure several zhang tall, but when he approached it, it vanished — he could only see its tracks, which were very large and resembled those of a beast or bird. Some courtiers also reported seeing an old man leading a dog who said: “I wish to see the Great Lord,” and then suddenly vanished. The Emperor had seen the large tracks but was not yet convinced; when his courtiers reported the old man, however, he became firmly persuaded it was an immortal. He lingered by the sea, and the fangshi traveling by relay carriage, along with secret emissaries sent to find immortals, numbered in the thousands.

In the fourth month, the Emperor returned to Fenggao. He reflected that what the Confucians and fangshi each said about the feng and shan was inconsistent with one another, lacked canonical basis, and was difficult to put into practice.

The Emperor arrived at Liangfu, where he performed rites and sacrificed to the Lord of the Earth. On the yimao day, he ordered the Palace Attendant Confucians to don leather caps and sashes and shoot the sacrificial ox to begin proceedings. The feng sacrifice was performed on the east side at the base of Mount Tai, following the rite used for the suburban sacrifice to Taiyi. The altar was twelve feet wide and nine feet high; beneath it were jade tablets inscribed with a text that was kept secret. When the rite was complete, the Emperor alone, accompanied only by his Palace Attendant and the Chariot Attendant Zihou, ascended Mount Tai, where another feng ceremony was performed. The details of this ceremony were all kept secret.

The next day, they descended by the northern path. On the bingchen day, the shan sacrifice was performed at Mount Suran, northeast of the base of Mount Tai, following the rites used for sacrifices to the Sovereign Earth. The Emperor personally performed the prostrations, wearing yellow upper garments, and music was used throughout. Three-ridged rushes from between the Yangtze and Huai rivers served as the sacred matting. Soils of five colors were added and mixed into the altar mound. Exotic beasts, flying birds, and white pheasants from distant regions were released as additional offerings to the ceremony. Rhinoceroses, yaks, and elephants were not used. All offerings were brought to Mount Tai and then released. During the night of the feng and shan sacrifices there appeared to be a luminous glow, and by day white clouds rose from within the altar mound.

When the Emperor returned from the feng and shan sacrifices, he took his seat in the Bright Hall and the assembled ministers offered their congratulations in turn. Thereupon he issued an edict to the Imperial Secretary:

“We, in Our insignificant person, have inherited the supreme position, and tremblingly fear that We are not equal to it. Our virtue is thin and meager; We lack clarity in matters of ritual and music. In performing the sacrifices to Taiyi, there appeared auspicious images and radiant light, and the omens seemed to confirm Our hopes. Drawn by these marvels and unable to hold back, We ascended to perform the feng on Mount Tai, proceeded to Liangfu, and then performed the shan at Suran. Let this mark a renewal. We are pleased to share a new beginning with all officials and scholars. Grant to the common people one ox per hundred households and ten shi of wine. To those aged eighty and above, and to orphans and widows, give two bolts of cloth and silk. Exempt Bo, Fenggao, Sheqiu, and Licheng from this year’s taxes. Let a general amnesty be proclaimed throughout All-Under-Heaven, following the yimao amnesty decree. In places We have passed through, let there be no further corvée labor. Cases from more than two years ago shall no longer be heard.”

A further edict was issued: “In antiquity, the Son of Heaven made an inspection tour once every five years and performed ceremonies at Mount Tai, and the feudal lords had lodging places for their court audiences. Let each feudal lord now build a residence at the foot of Mount Tai.”

Now that the Emperor had completed the feng and shan at Mount Tai without incident of wind, rain, or calamity, the fangshi declared anew that the divine mountains of Penglai seemed within reach. The Emperor was elated at the prospect of encountering them and traveled east once more to gaze out over the sea, hoping to reach Penglai.

The Chariot Attendant Zihou fell suddenly ill and died within a single day. The Emperor then departed, traveling along the coast northward to Jieshi, touring from Liaoxi, passing along the northern frontier to Jiuyuan. In the fifth month, he returned to Ganquan. The responsible officials proposed that since the precious tripod had appeared, the era should be called Yuanding (“Origin of the Tripod”), and that the present year should become the first year of Yuanfeng (“Origin of the Feng Sacrifice”).

That autumn, a bushy star appeared in the Eastern Well constellation. More than ten days later, another bushy star appeared in the Three Legs constellation. The qi-observer Wang Shuo said: “In my watch I alone saw a star emerge shaped like a gourd; after the space of a meal, it re-entered.” The responsible officials declared: “Your Majesty has established the feng and shan sacrifices for the house of Han. Heaven has responded with virtue-stars.”

The following year in winter, the Emperor performed the suburban sacrifice to the Five Emperors at Yong, and upon his return performed rites and prayers at the shrine of Taiyi. The hymn of offering said: “The virtue-stars shine and spread forth — these are auspicious signs. The longevity-star appears again, its deep brilliance shining bright. The faithfulness-star is clearly seen. The Emperor reverently bows in this grand offering of prayer.”

In spring, Gongsun Qing reported that he had seen a spirit on the mountains of Donglai, and that the spirit had seemingly said: “I wish to see the Emperor.” The Emperor thereupon visited Goushi and promoted Gongsun Qing to Grand Palace Gentleman. He then proceeded to Donglai and lingered for several days, but saw nothing — only the large footprints appeared again. He once more dispatched fangshi by the thousands to seek marvels and gather magical mushrooms and drugs.

That year there was a drought. The Emperor, having come out on no specific pretext, prayed at Wanli Sands, then passed by to sacrifice at Mount Tai. Returning to Huzi, he personally oversaw the blocking of the breach in the Yellow River. He stayed for two days, performed a sinking sacrifice, and departed. He ordered two ministers to lead soldiers in closing the breach. The river was diverted into two channels, restoring the old courses of Yu the Great.

At this time, since the Nanyue kingdom had been destroyed, a Yue man named Yong Zhi declared: “The Yue people customarily believe in ghosts, and in their sacrifices they actually see ghosts — repeatedly with proven efficacy. In former times, the King of Dong’ou revered the ghosts and lived to one hundred and sixty years of age. Later generations grew lax and negligent, and thus declined.”

Thereupon the Emperor ordered Yue shamans to establish Yue-style prayer shrines. These had platforms but no earthen altars, and sacrificed to the heavenly spirits, the High God, and the hundred ghosts, using chicken-bone divination. The Emperor believed in it, and from this time the Yue sacrificial rites and chicken-bone divination came into use at court.

Gongsun Qing said: “Immortals can be seen, but Your Majesty has always been in a hurry when traveling, and this is why they have not appeared. If Your Majesty were to build an observatory, like the one at Goushi, and set out dried meats and dates, the spirit-people could surely be attracted. Moreover, immortals prefer to dwell in tall towers.”

The Emperor thereupon ordered the Feilian and Gui observatories to be built at Chang’an, and the Yiyan Longevity Observatory to be built at Ganquan. He sent Gongsun Qing with an imperial tally to set up ritual equipment and watch for spirit-people. He also built the Heaven-Reaching Terrace and placed sacrificial equipment at its base, intending to attract immortals and their kind. At Ganquan, a new front hall was added, and all the palace buildings began to be expanded.

In summer, magical mushrooms grew on the balustrade within the inner palace. Because the Emperor had blocked the river breach and raised the Heaven-Reaching Terrace, and something like a luminous cloud had appeared, he issued an edict: “Nine stalks of magical mushrooms have grown on the Ganquan balustrade. Let a general amnesty be proclaimed throughout All-Under-Heaven, and let there be no further corvée labor.”

The following year, a campaign was launched against Chaoxian. In summer, there was a drought. Gongsun Qing said: “When the Yellow Emperor performed the feng sacrifice, there was likewise a drought — the ‘dry feng’ lasted three years.” The Emperor thereupon issued an edict: “The drought — could this be the ‘dry feng’? Let All-Under-Heaven reverently sacrifice to the Spirit Star.”

The following year, the Emperor performed the suburban sacrifice at Yong, opened the Huizhong road, and toured along it. In spring, he reached Mingze and returned via Xihe.

The next year in winter, the Emperor toured the southern commanderies. He reached Jiangling and turned east. He ascended and performed rites at Mount Tianzhu of Qian, designating it the Southern Peak. He floated down the Yangtze, emerging from Xunyang to Zongyang, passing by Lake Pengli, and sacrificing at the famous mountains and rivers along the way. He went north to Langya and along the coast. In the middle of the fourth month, he arrived at Fenggao and renewed the feng sacrifice.

Originally, when the Emperor first performed the feng at Mount Tai, there was an ancient Bright Hall site at the northeast base of the mountain, but the terrain was rugged and not spacious. The Emperor wished to build a Bright Hall near Fenggao but did not know the proper design. A man from Jinan named Gongyu Dai submitted a diagram of the Bright Hall from the time of the Yellow Emperor.

The diagram showed a single hall with no walls on any of its four sides, roofed with thatch, with water channeled around it and a circular palace wall forming a covered corridor. Above was a tower. Entry was from the southwest, and the passage was called Kunlun. The Emperor would enter through it to bow and sacrifice to the High God.

The Emperor thereupon ordered the Bright Hall to be built above the Wen River at Fenggao, following Gongyu Dai’s diagram. When the five-year renewal of the feng ceremony came, sacrifices were performed to Taiyi and the Five Emperors in the upper seats of the Bright Hall, with a spirit-seat for Emperor Gaozu placed facing them. Sacrifices to the Sovereign Earth were performed in the lower chamber, using twenty sets of the Grand Sacrifice. The Emperor entered by the Kunlun passage and first performed prostrations in the Bright Hall following the suburban sacrifice rite. When the rites were complete, offerings were burned at the base of the hall.

The Emperor then ascended Mount Tai again, where he performed a secret sacrifice at the summit. At the base of Mount Tai, the Five Emperors were worshipped, each according to his proper direction, with the Yellow Emperor sharing a place with the Red Emperor. The responsible officials attended and assisted the rites. When fire was raised at the summit of Mount Tai, all below responded in kind.

Two years later, on the jiazi day, the first day of the eleventh month, which fell on the winter solstice, the calendar experts took this as the origin of the fundamental cycle. The Emperor came in person to Mount Tai and on this jiazi first-day winter solstice sacrificed to the High God in the Bright Hall, renewing the feng and shan ceremonies as before.

The hymn of offering said: “Heaven once more bestows upon the Emperor the grand primordial divine tallies. The cycle comes full and begins anew. The Emperor reverently bows to Taiyi.”

He traveled east to the coast and examined the results of those who had gone to sea and the fangshi who had sought spirits. None had produced any verification, yet he dispatched still more, hoping to encounter them.

On the yiyou day of the eleventh month, the Bailiang Hall was destroyed by fire. On the jiawu day, the first of the twelfth month, the Emperor personally performed the shan sacrifice at Gaoli and sacrificed to the Sovereign Earth. He went to the shore of the Bohai Sea, intending to perform a distance sacrifice toward Penglai and its companion islands, hoping to reach the extraordinary courts of the immortals.

The Emperor returned, and because of the Bailiang fire, held the annual accounting audience at Ganquan instead. Gongsun Qing said: “The Yellow Emperor built the Azure Spirit Terrace; after twelve days it burned down, and the Yellow Emperor then governed from the Bright Court. The Bright Court is Ganquan.” Many fangshi also claimed that ancient emperors had made their capital at Ganquan. Thereafter the Emperor received the feudal lords’ court audiences at Ganquan as well, and residences for the feudal lords were built there.

Yong Zhi then said: “Among the Yue people, when there is a fire, the custom is to rebuild on an even grander scale, using size to overpower and subdue the calamity.” Thereupon the Jianzhang Palace was built, designed with a thousand gates and ten thousand doors. Its front hall was built to exceed the Weiyang Palace in height. To its east rose the Phoenix Gate-towers, over twenty zhang tall. To its west lay the Tangzhong grounds, with beast parks extending for dozens of li. To its north a great pool was constructed, with the Gradual Terrace rising over twenty zhang — the pool was named the Grand Liquid Pool. In it were islands called Penglai, Fangzhang, Yingzhou, and Huliang, made in the image of the divine mountains in the sea with their turtles and fish. To its south were the Jade Hall, the Jade-Disc Gate, and great bird statues. The Spirit Brilliance Terrace and the Well-Crib Tower were also erected, rising over fifty zhang, with covered carriage-roads connecting them all.

In summer, the Han reformed the calendar, making the first month the beginning of the year, and elevating yellow as the dynastic color. Official titles and seals were changed to use five-character formats. This became the first year of the Taichu era. That year, a western campaign was launched against Dayuan. A great locust plague arose. Lady Ding, Yu Chu of Luoyang, and others used ritual arts and sacrifices to cast curses against the Xiongnu and Dayuan.

The following year, the responsible officials reported that at the five altars of Yong there were no proper cooked sacrificial offerings, and the aromatic preparations were incomplete. The Emperor thereupon ordered the sacrificial officials to supply the altars with calves and complete sacrifice sets, with foods of each of the five colors conquering the appropriate phase, and to replace live colts with wooden puppet-horses. Only the sacrifices to the Five Emperors used live colts, as did the Emperor’s personal suburban sacrifices. For all the various famous mountains and rivers that had previously used colts, wooden puppet-horses were substituted in every case. Only when the Emperor passed through in person were live colts used. All other rites continued as before.

The following year, the Emperor toured east along the coast and examined the results of those seeking immortals — none had produced any verification. A fangshi claimed: “In the time of the Yellow Emperor, five walled compounds with twelve towers were built to await spirit-people at the appointed time, and the structure was called ‘Welcoming the Year.’” The Emperor approved its construction according to the fangshi’s specifications, naming it Mingnian (“Next Year”). The Emperor personally performed rites and sacrificed to the High God, wearing yellow upper garments.

Gongyu Dai said: “Although the Yellow Emperor performed the feng at Mount Tai, his ministers Feng Hou, Feng Ju, and Qi Bo directed the Yellow Emperor to perform the feng at Eastern Mount Tai and the shan at Mount Fan to match the talismans — and only then did he achieve immortality.”

The Emperor ordered sacrificial equipment to be set up and went to Eastern Mount Tai. But Eastern Mount Tai was low and small, unworthy of its reputation, so the Emperor ordered the sacrificial officials to perform rites there without conducting the feng and shan. Afterward he ordered Gongyu Dai to remain and tend the sacrifices while watching for divine manifestations.

In summer, the Emperor returned to Mount Tai and renewed the five-year rites as before, adding a shan sacrifice at Stone Gate. Stone Gate was at the southern base of Mount Tai, and the fangshi widely claimed it was the gateway of the immortals. For this reason, the Emperor personally performed the shan there.

Five years later, the Emperor again came to Mount Tai to renew the feng sacrifice, and on his return passed by to sacrifice at Mount Chang.

The sacrifices currently maintained by the Emperor are as follows: Taiyi and the Sovereign Earth, at which the Emperor performs the suburban sacrifice in person every three years; the feng and shan sacrifices established for the house of Han, renewed once every five years. The Taiyi sacrifice of Bo Ji along with the Three Ones, the Dark Sheep, the Horse Procession, and the Red Star — five in number — have their seasonal rites performed by Kuan Shu’s sacrificial officials. In all, six sacrificial systems are overseen by the Grand Invocator.

As for the Eight Spirits and other deities — the Mingnian structure, Mount Fan, and the various other named shrines — when the Emperor passes through he sacrifices; when he departs, the rites cease. Sacrifices established by fangshi are each managed by the fangshi himself; when the man dies, the sacrifice ends, and the sacrificial officials do not maintain it. All other sacrifices continue as before.

Since the present Emperor performed the feng and shan, twelve years have passed, and he has made the circuit of all the Five Peaks and Four Great Rivers. Yet the fangshi who watched and prayed for spirit-people and went to sea seeking Penglai never produced any verified result. And Gongsun Qing, who was supposed to be watching for spirits, still offered the giant footprints as his excuse, with nothing to show for it.

The Emperor grew increasingly weary and disgusted with the fangshi’s bizarre and far-fetched claims. Yet in the end he could never bring himself to sever ties with them entirely, always hoping that he might encounter the genuine article. From this time on, fangshi who claimed to be able to invoke spirits through sacrifice grew ever more numerous — but their results speak for themselves.

The Grand Historian says: I personally accompanied the imperial tours to sacrifice to the gods of heaven and earth, the famous mountains and rivers, and the feng and shan ceremonies. I entered the Longevity Palace to attend upon the spirit-séances and hear the divine utterances. I thoroughly observed the claims of the fangshi and the sacrificial officials. Having done so, I withdrew and composed this ordered account of those who from antiquity to the present have dealt with ghosts and spirits, setting forth both the outward show and the inner reality of these matters. Should a discerning reader come after me, he will be able to see it all clearly here. As for the precise details of the sacrificial vessels, jade tablets, and silk offerings, and the rites of presentation and libation — these are preserved in the records of the responsible officials.