楚世家

The ancestors of Chu descended from Emperor Zhuanxu, known as Gaoyang. Gaoyang was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor and the son of Changyi. Gaoyang fathered Cheng; Cheng fathered Juanzhang; Juanzhang fathered Zhongli. Zhongli served Emperor Ku (Gaoxin) as Master of Fire and rendered great merit, illuminating all under heaven, so Emperor Ku bestowed on him the title Zhurong, 'Blesser of Fire.' When the Gonggong clan rebelled, Emperor Ku ordered Zhongli to exterminate them, but Zhongli failed to finish the task. The emperor therefore executed Zhongli on a gengyin day and appointed his younger brother Wu Hui as Zhongli's successor, restoring him to the office of Master of Fire with the title Zhurong.

Wu Hui fathered Lu Zhong. Lu Zhong had six sons, all born by being cut from the womb. The eldest was Kunwu; the second, Canhu; the third, Pengzu; the fourth, Huiren; the fifth bore the surname Cao; and the sixth was Jilian, who bore the surname Xiu — Chu descended from his line. The Kunwu clan served as marquises and earls during the Xia dynasty, and King Tang of Shang destroyed them during the reign of Jie. The Pengzu clan served as marquises and earls during the Yin (Shang) dynasty and were destroyed in its final age. Jilian fathered Fuju; Fuju fathered Xuexiong. After this the line declined, its members scattered between the Central States and the barbarian regions, and their genealogy can no longer be traced.

In the time of King Wen of Zhou, a descendant of Jilian's line named Yuxiong appeared. Yuxiong served King Wen but died young. His son was called Xiong Li. Xiong Li fathered Xiong Kuang, and Xiong Kuang fathered Xiong Yi.

During the reign of King Cheng of Zhou, the court elevated the descendants of those who had labored for Kings Wen and Wu and enfeoffed Xiong Yi in the wilderness of Chu. He received a domain of the lowest rank — that of a zi or nan (viscount or baron) — bearing the surname Xiu, and established his seat at Danyang. Xiong Yi, Viscount of Chu, served King Cheng alongside Duke Boqin of Lu, the son of the Duke of Kang of Wei (Mou), Marquis Xie of Jin, and Lü Ji the son of the Grand Duke of Qi.

Xiong Yi fathered Xiong Ai; Xiong Ai fathered Xiong Dan; Xiong Dan fathered Xiong Sheng. Xiong Sheng designated his younger brother Xiong Yang as his successor. Xiong Yang fathered Xiong Qu.

Xiong Qu had three sons. During the reign of King Yi of Zhou, the royal house had weakened: some lords no longer attended court, and they attacked one another. Xiong Qu won the deep loyalty of the people between the Yangtze and Han rivers, then raised troops and conquered Yong and Yang-Yue, advancing as far as E. Xiong Qu declared: 'We are barbarians. We do not share in the titles and posthumous names of the Central States.' He thereupon installed his eldest son Kang as King of Judan, his middle son Hong as King of E, and his youngest son Zhici as King of Yuezhang — all in Chu's territory along the Yangtze.

When King Li of Zhou came to power, however, his rule was tyrannical. Xiong Qu, fearing that Li might attack Chu, removed the royal titles.

Xiong Wukang succeeded next but died young. After Xiong Qu's death, his son Xiong Zhi Hong took the throne. When Zhi Hong died, his younger brother murdered the heir and seized power — this was Xiong Yan. Xiong Yan fathered Xiong Yong.

In the sixth year of Xiong Yong's reign, the people of Zhou revolted and attacked King Li, who fled to Zhi. In Xiong Yong's tenth year he died, and his brother Xiong Yan succeeded him.

Xiong Yan ruled for ten years and died. He had four sons: the eldest, Bo Shuang; the second, Zhong Xue; the third, Shu Kan; and the youngest, Ji Xun. After Xiong Yan's death, the eldest son Bo Shuang succeeded — this was Xiong Shuang.

In the first year of Xiong Shuang, King Xuan of Zhou first ascended the throne. In Xiong Shuang's sixth year he died, and his three younger brothers fought for the succession. Zhong Xue was killed; Shu Kan fled to the Pu tribes to escape danger; and the youngest brother Ji Xun took power — this was Xiong Xun. In Xiong Xun's sixteenth year, Duke Huan of Zheng first received his fief. In Xiong Xun's twenty-second year he died, and his son Xiong E succeeded. Xiong E ruled nine years and died; his son Xiong Yi succeeded — this was Ruo'ao.

In the twentieth year of Ruo'ao, King You of Zhou was killed by the Quanrong barbarians. The Zhou court moved east, and Duke Xiang of Qin was first ranked among the lords.

In Ruo'ao's twenty-seventh year he died, and his son Xiong Kan succeeded — this was Xiao'ao. Xiao'ao ruled six years and died; his son Xiong Xun succeeded — this was Fen Mao. In the thirteenth year of Fen Mao, Jin fell into disorder because of the Quwo succession crisis. Fen Mao died. His uncle Xiong Tong murdered Fen Mao's son and seized power — this was King Wu of Chu.

In the seventeenth year of King Wu's reign, the Quwo branch in Jin assassinated Duke Xiao of Jin. In his nineteenth year, Duan, the younger brother of the Earl of Zheng, staged a rebellion. In his twenty-first year, Zheng encroached on the Son of Heaven's farmland. In his twenty-third year, Wei assassinated its lord, Duke Huan. In his twenty-ninth year, Lu assassinated its lord, Duke Yin. In his thirty-first year, Grand Steward Hua Du of Song assassinated his lord, Duke Shang.

In the thirty-fifth year, Chu attacked Sui. Sui protested: 'We have committed no offense.' Chu replied: 'We are barbarians. Now the lords everywhere rebel, invade, and murder one another. We have our battered armor, and we wish to observe the government of the Central States. We ask that the royal house elevate our title.' The people of Sui went to the Zhou court on Chu's behalf and requested that Chu's rank be raised. The royal house refused, and the envoys returned to report to Chu.

In the thirty-seventh year, Xiong Tong of Chu said in anger: 'My ancestor Yuxiong was the Teacher of King Wen, yet he died young. King Cheng elevated my forebears but assigned them only the land of a viscount-baron and sent them to live in Chu. All the barbarian peoples submit to us, yet the king will not advance our rank. I shall elevate myself.' He thereupon declared himself King Wu, made a covenant with the men of Sui, and departed. From this time on, Chu began to open up and annex the territory of the Pu tribes.

In the fifty-first year, the Zhou court summoned the Marquis of Sui and rebuked him for having supported Chu's claim to kingship. Chu was furious and, considering Sui to have betrayed it, attacked Sui. King Wu died during the campaign, and the army withdrew. His son, King Wen (Xiong Zi), succeeded him and established Ying as the first fixed capital.

In the second year of King Wen's reign, Chu attacked Shen and passed through Deng. People of Deng remarked, 'The King of Chu would be easy to capture,' but the Marquis of Deng did not act on this. In his sixth year, Chu attacked Cai, captured Duke Ai of Cai and brought him back, but later released him. Chu had grown powerful and dominated the small states between the Yangtze and Han rivers; they all feared Chu. In his eleventh year, Duke Huan of Qi first achieved hegemony, and Chu too began its rise to greatness.

In the twelfth year, Chu attacked Deng and destroyed it. In the thirteenth year, King Wen died. His son Xiong Tian succeeded — this was Zhuang'ao. In the fifth year of Zhuang'ao's reign, the king tried to kill his younger brother Xiong Yun. Yun fled to Sui and, together with Sui, launched a surprise attack, killed Zhuang'ao, and seized power — this was King Cheng.

In the first year of King Cheng (Yun), upon his accession he spread virtue and bestowed kindness, renewing old bonds of friendship with the lords. He sent envoys to present tribute to the Son of Heaven. The Son of Heaven granted him sacrificial meat and declared: 'Pacify the disorders of the Yi and Yue barbarians in the south, but do not encroach on the Central States.' At this time, Chu's territory extended a thousand li.

In the sixteenth year, Duke Huan of Qi invaded Chu with an army, advancing as far as Mount Xing. King Cheng of Chu dispatched General Qu Wan with troops to resist him, and the two sides concluded a covenant. Duke Huan's accusation was that Chu had failed to deliver its tribute of rush-grass filters to the Zhou royal house. Chu acknowledged the charge, and the Qi army withdrew.

In the eighteenth year, King Cheng led troops north to attack Xu. The lord of Xu bared his torso in submission, and Chu released him. In the twenty-second year, Chu attacked Huang. In the twenty-sixth year, Chu destroyed Ying.

In the thirty-third year, Duke Xiang of Song attempted to organize an inter-state assembly and summoned Chu. The King of Chu said angrily: 'He summons me? I shall go gladly and seize and humiliate him.' He went to the meeting at Yu, captured Duke Xiang of Song and publicly humiliated him, then later released him.

In the thirty-fourth year, Duke Wen of Zheng traveled south to pay court to Chu. King Cheng of Chu marched north and attacked Song, defeating them at the Hong River. He shot and wounded Duke Xiang of Song, and the duke later died of his wound.

In the thirty-fifth year, Prince Chong'er of Jin passed through Chu. King Cheng entertained him with the full ceremonial courtesies due a visiting lord and generously escorted him onward to Qin.

In the thirty-ninth year, Duke Xi of Lu came to request Chu troops to attack Qi. Chu dispatched Lord Shen to lead an army against Qi, seized Gu, and installed Yong, a son of Duke Huan of Qi, there. All seven sons of Duke Huan fled to Chu, and Chu appointed every one of them as Senior Grand Masters. Chu also destroyed Kui, because Kui had failed to sacrifice to Zhurong and Yuxiong.

In the summer, Chu attacked Song. Song appealed urgently to Jin for help, and Jin came to Song's rescue. King Cheng withdrew his main force. General Ziyu requested permission to fight, but King Cheng said: 'Chong'er wandered in exile for many years before finally regaining his state. Heaven has opened the way for him — he cannot be opposed.' Ziyu insisted, so the king gave him only a small supporting force and departed. Jin defeated Ziyu at Chengpu. King Cheng was furious and executed Ziyu.

In the forty-sixth year: Earlier, King Cheng had intended to designate Shang Chen as crown prince and consulted the Chief Minister Zishang. Zishang said: 'Your Majesty is still in his prime and has many palace favorites — deposing a crown prince will only breed chaos. Moreover, Chu's succession has customarily favored the youngest son. Besides, Shang Chen has the eyes of a wasp and the voice of a jackal. He is a man capable of cruelty. He must not be installed.' The king did not listen and made him crown prince.

Later, the king changed his mind and wished to install Prince Zhi instead, deposing Crown Prince Shang Chen. Shang Chen heard rumors of this but was unsure. He told his tutor Pan Chong: 'How can I find out the truth?' Pan Chong said: 'Hold a feast for the king's favorite consort, Lady Jiang of the Mi clan, but show her deliberate disrespect.' Shang Chen did so. Lady Jiang said angrily: 'No wonder the king wants to kill you and install Zhi!' Shang Chen reported to Pan Chong: 'It is true.' Pan Chong asked: 'Can you serve Prince Zhi as your lord?' 'No.' 'Can you flee the state?' 'No.' 'Can you carry out the great deed?' 'Yes.'

In the tenth month of winter, Shang Chen surrounded King Cheng with palace guards. King Cheng asked to eat bear's paw before dying, but this was refused. On the dingwei day, King Cheng strangled himself. Shang Chen took the throne — this was King Mu.

Upon taking power, King Mu gave his crown prince's palace to Pan Chong, appointed him Grand Tutor, and placed him in charge of state affairs. In King Mu's third year, Chu destroyed Jiang. In his fourth year, Chu destroyed Liu and Liao — both descendants of Gaotao. In his eighth year, Chu attacked Chen. In his twelfth year, King Mu died. His son, King Zhuang (Lü), succeeded him.

King Zhuang ascended the throne and for three years issued no orders, devoting himself to pleasure day and night. He proclaimed throughout the state: 'Anyone who dares to remonstrate will be executed without pardon.' Wu Ju entered the court to admonish him. King Zhuang sat with a lady of Zheng in his left arm and a woman of Yue in his right, surrounded by bells and drums. Wu Ju said: 'I wish to present a riddle.' He said: 'There is a bird perched on a hill. For three years it has neither flown nor cried. What bird is this?' King Zhuang replied: 'The bird that has not flown for three years — when it flies, it will soar to the heavens. The bird that has not cried for three years — when it cries, it will startle all men. Withdraw. I understand.' But months passed, and the king's dissipation only grew worse.

Grand Master Su Cong then entered to remonstrate. The king said: 'Have you not heard the decree?' Su Cong replied: 'To die in order to enlighten one's lord — that is a minister's deepest wish.' At this, the king put an end to his debauchery and took up governance. He executed several hundred officials and promoted several hundred others, entrusting Wu Ju and Su Cong with the administration of the state. The people rejoiced greatly. That same year, Chu destroyed Yong. In his sixth year, he attacked Song and captured five hundred war chariots.

In the eighth year, King Zhuang attacked the Luhun Rong barbarians, then advanced to Luo and paraded his army on the outskirts of the Zhou capital. King Ding of Zhou sent Wang Sunman to receive the King of Chu with ceremony. The King of Chu asked about the size and weight of the Nine Cauldrons.

Wang Sunman replied: 'It depends on virtue, not on the cauldrons.'

King Zhuang said: 'Do not use the Nine Cauldrons to block me! The broken tips of Chu's weapon-hooks alone are enough to cast nine cauldrons.'

Wang Sunman said: 'Alas! Has Your Majesty forgotten? In the flourishing days of Yu and the Xia, peoples from afar all came bearing tribute. Metal was collected from the nine provinces, and cauldrons were cast bearing images of all creatures, so that the people could distinguish spirits from demons. When Jie ruled with disordered virtue, the cauldrons passed to Yin, where they remained for six hundred years of sacrifice. When King Zhou of Yin ruled with violence and cruelty, the cauldrons passed to Zhou. When virtue is bright and glorious, even what is small will be weighty. When there is treachery and confusion, even what is great will be light. In former times, King Cheng established the cauldrons at Jiaru. The divination foretold thirty generations and seven hundred years — this is the mandate of Heaven. Though Zhou's virtue has declined, the mandate of Heaven has not yet changed. The weight of the cauldrons is not something that may be asked about.'

The King of Chu withdrew.

In the ninth year, a member of the Ruo'ao clan served as chief minister. Someone slandered him to the king. Fearing execution, the Ruo'ao clan rebelled and attacked the king. The king struck back and wiped out the entire Ruo'ao clan. In the thirteenth year, Chu destroyed Shu.

In the sixteenth year, Chu attacked Chen and killed Xia Zhengshu — Zhengshu had assassinated his own lord, which was why he was executed. After conquering Chen, King Zhuang annexed it as a county. All his ministers offered congratulations, but Shen Shushi, returning from an embassy to Qi, did not congratulate him.

The king asked why. Shen Shushi replied: 'There is a common saying: A man leads his ox through another man's field; the field's owner seizes the ox. The trespasser was in the wrong, to be sure — but to take his ox, is that not going too far? Your Majesty used Chen's internal disorder as the pretext to lead the lords in an attack, waging war in the name of righteousness. But then to covet Chen and annex it as a county — how can you ever again give orders to the realm?'

King Zhuang thereupon restored Chen's ruling house and returned the state.

In the spring of the seventeenth year, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Zheng and took it after three months. He entered through the Huang Gate. The Earl of Zheng came to meet him bare-chested and leading a sheep, saying: 'I, the solitary one, have offended Heaven and could not serve Your Majesty. Your Majesty harbored righteous anger, and it has reached our poor city — this is my fault. I dare only obey whatever is commanded. Banish me to the shores of the Southern Sea, or give me as a servant to the other lords — I will obey. But if Your Majesty does not forget the former bonds of Kings Li, Xuan, Huan, and Wu, and does not extinguish our altars of soil and grain, allowing us to change our ways and serve Your Majesty anew — that is my deepest hope, though I dare not expect it. I venture to lay bare my heart.'

Chu's ministers said: 'Your Majesty, do not agree.' But King Zhuang replied: 'A ruler who can humble himself before others will surely win the trust of his people. How can such a state be destroyed?' King Zhuang personally grasped his banner, waved his army left and right, and withdrew his troops thirty li, making camp. He then granted Zheng peace. Pan Wang entered the city to conclude the covenant, and Ziliang was sent as a hostage.

In the summer, in the sixth month, Jin came to rescue Zheng and engaged Chu in battle. Chu inflicted a crushing defeat on the Jin army at the banks of the Yellow River, then advanced as far as Hengyong before returning home.

In the twentieth year, Chu besieged Song because Song had killed a Chu envoy. After five months of siege, food inside the city was exhausted. The people exchanged children to eat and split bones for fuel. Song's minister Hua Yuan came out and told King Zhuang the true state of affairs.

King Zhuang exclaimed: 'What a man of honor!' He then withdrew his army and departed.

In the twenty-third year, King Zhuang died. His son, King Gong (Shen), succeeded him.

In his twenty-third year, King Zhuang died and was succeeded by his son, King Gong (Shen).

In King Gong's sixteenth year, Jin attacked Zheng. Zheng sent an urgent appeal for help, and King Gong went to Zheng's rescue. The Chu and Jin armies clashed at Yanling. Jin defeated Chu, and an arrow struck King Gong in the eye. The king summoned his general Zifan, but Zifan was addicted to wine, and his attendant Shu Yanggu had plied him with drink until he was drunk. The king, enraged, shot Zifan dead and withdrew his forces.

In his thirty-first year, King Gong died. His son, King Kang (Zhao), succeeded him.

King Kang reigned for fifteen years and died. His son Yuan succeeded him, taking the title Jia'ao.

King Kang had favored his younger brothers: Gongzi Wei, Zibi, Zixi, and Qiji. In Jia'ao's third year, his uncle Gongzi Wei — the youngest brother of King Kang — was appointed Chief Minister and given command of the military. In the fourth year, Wei was sent on a mission to Zheng but turned back upon hearing that the king had fallen ill. On the jiyou day of the twelfth month, Wei entered the palace ostensibly to inquire after the king's health, then strangled him and killed his sons Mo and Pingxia. He dispatched a messenger to Zheng. Wu Ju asked: "Who will be the successor?" The envoy replied: "Our minister Wei." Wu Ju corrected the phrasing: "Wei, the eldest surviving son of King Gong." Zibi fled to Jin, and Wei took the throne as King Ling.

In King Ling's third year, sixth month, Chu notified Jin that it wished to convene a congress of the lords. The lords all met Chu at Shen. Wu Ju said: "In ancient times, Xia Qi held the feast of Juntai, Shang Tang received the mandate at Jingbo, King Wu of Zhou swore the oath at Mengjin, King Cheng held the review at Qiyang, King Kang held court at Fenggong, King Mu held the assembly at Tushan, Duke Huan of Qi led the campaign at Zhaoling, and Duke Wen of Jin made the covenant at Jiantu. Which model does my lord wish to follow?" King Ling replied: "Duke Huan's." Zichan of Zheng was present. Jin, Song, Lu, and Wei did not attend. After the covenant, King Ling showed an arrogant bearing. Wu Ju cautioned him: "Jie held the assembly at Youreng, and Youmin revolted. Zhou held the assembly at Lishan, and the Eastern Yi revolted. King You made the pact at Taishi, and the Rong and Di revolted. My lord, be careful how you finish!"

In the seventh month, Chu led the allied forces against Wu and besieged Zhufang. In the eighth month they took it, captured Qing Feng, and wiped out his clan. Before his execution, they paraded Qing Feng and proclaimed: "Let none imitate Qing Feng of Qi, who murdered his lord and preyed upon the young heir, then made a pact with the ministers!" Qing Feng retorted: "None can match the way Gongzi Wei, a junior son of King Gong of Chu, strangled his nephew the king and took his place!" King Ling had him swiftly killed.

In the seventh year, the Zhanghua Terrace was completed. The king ordered fugitives to be brought in to populate it.

In the eighth year, King Ling sent Gongzi Qiji to lead an army and destroy Chen. In the tenth year, he summoned the Marquis of Cai, got him drunk, and killed him. He assigned Qiji to pacify Cai and made him governor of both Chen and Cai.

In the eleventh year, Chu attacked Xu to intimidate Wu. King Ling encamped at Ganxi to await the outcome. The king said: "When Qi, Jin, Lu, and Wei received their fiefs, they all received precious ritual vessels. I alone did not. If I now send an envoy to Zhou to request a cauldron as my share, will they grant it?" Xi Fu replied: "They will certainly grant it to Your Majesty! In ancient times, our founding king Xiong Yi carved out a place in the Jing Mountains, wearing ragged clothes and eating wild herbs, dwelling in the brush and trekking through forests to serve the Son of Heaven, offering only peach-wood bows and thorn-wood arrows as tribute. Qi was the king's maternal uncle; Jin, Lu, and Wei were the king's mother's brothers — that is why Chu received no share while those states all did. Now Zhou and those four states serve Your Majesty and will follow whatever command is given. How could they begrudge a cauldron?"

King Ling said: "In ancient times, my imperial ancestor Kunwu held the old lands of Xu. Now the people of Zheng covet that territory and will not give it to me. If I demand it, will they yield?" Xi Fu replied: "If Zhou does not begrudge the cauldrons, how would Zheng dare begrudge the land?"

King Ling said: "Formerly the lords shunned me and feared Jin. Now I have built great fortified cities at Chen, Cai, and Buleng, each with revenues sufficient for a thousand war chariots. Do the lords fear me?" Xi Fu replied: "They fear you indeed!" King Ling was pleased and said: "Xi Fu speaks well of ancient matters."

In the spring of the twelfth year, King Ling was still indulging in pleasures at Ganxi and could not bring himself to leave. The people suffered under his forced-labor levies. Earlier, when King Ling had mustered troops at Shen, he had humiliated the Yue minister Chang Shouguo and killed the Cai minister Guan Qi. Guan Qi's son had fled to Wu and urged the King of Wu to attack Chu, acting as a spy for Wu and fomenting rebellion. Using a forged order from Gongzi Qiji, they summoned Gongzi Bi from Jin. Arriving at Cai with Wu and Yue troops, they planned to seize the city. Gongzi Bi met with Qiji and they swore a pact at Deng. They then entered the capital, killed King Ling's crown prince Lu, and installed Zibi as king, with Zixi as Chief Minister and Qiji as Marshal. They first secured the royal palace. Guan Cong then went to the army at Ganxi and announced to the Chu troops: "The state has a new king. Those who return first will have their ranks, fiefs, fields, and homes restored. Latecomers will be relocated." The Chu soldiers all deserted, abandoning King Ling and heading home.

When King Ling heard that Crown Prince Lu had been killed, he threw himself from his chariot and cried: "Do people love their sons this much?" His attendant said: "Even more so." The king said: "I have killed so many men's sons — how could this not come back to me?" The Right Administrator said: "Let us wait in the suburbs and gauge the people's sentiment." The king said: "The fury of the multitude cannot be defied." "Then let us enter a major district and request troops from the lords." The king said: "They have all turned against me." "Then let us flee to another state and submit to a great power's judgment." The king said: "Great fortune does not come twice. I would only invite humiliation." He then boarded a boat, intending to enter Yan. The Right Administrator, concluding that the king would not accept any plan, feared dying alongside him and also fled.

King Ling wandered the mountains alone. No commoner dared take the king in. He encountered a former servant of his household and said: "Find me food — I have not eaten for three days." The servant said: "The new king has decreed that anyone who feeds or follows the old king will be punished along with his entire clan. And besides, there is no food to be found." The king lay down and rested his head on the man's lap. The servant placed a mound of earth under the king's head in his stead and slipped away. When the king awoke and found the man gone, he was too weak from hunger to stand. Shen Hai, the son of Yuyin Shen Wuyu, said: "My father twice violated the king's commands, yet the king did not execute him. What greater grace could there be?" He went searching for the king, found him starving in the marshes of Lize, and brought him home. On the guichou day of the fifth month of summer, the king died in Shen Hai's house. Shen Hai had his two daughters follow the king in death, and they were buried together.

At this time, although Chu had already installed Zibi as king, the court feared King Ling's return and had received no news of his death. The advisor Guan Cong told the newly enthroned King Bi: "Unless you kill Qiji, you may have won the state but you will still meet disaster." The king said: "I cannot bring myself to do it." Guan Cong said: "Then others will bring themselves to act against you." The king refused to listen, and Guan Cong left. Qiji returned to the capital.

The people were seized with nightly panic, crying: "King Ling has come back!" On the night of the yimao day, Qiji sent boatmen to run along the river shouting: "King Ling has arrived!" The people were thrown into even greater terror. He then sent Man Chengran to tell King Bi and Chief Minister Zixi: "The king has returned! The people are about to kill you, and the Marshal's forces are on their way. You had best make your own arrangements while you can, rather than suffer humiliation. The fury of the crowd is like flood and fire — nothing can stop it." King Bi and Zixi thereupon killed themselves. On the bingchen day, Qiji ascended the throne, changed his name to Xiong Ju, and became King Ping.

King Ping had come to power by deceiving and destroying two kings. Fearing that the people and the lords would rebel against him, he bestowed generous benefits on the populace. He restored the territories of Chen and Cai and reestablished their ruling houses as before. He returned lands seized from Zheng. He cared for the people at home and reformed the government and its teachings. Wu, taking advantage of Chu's turmoil, captured five Chu commanders and took them home. King Ping told Guan Cong: "Ask for whatever you wish." Guan Cong requested the office of Divination Director, and the king granted it.

Earlier, King Gong had five favored sons but no designated heir. He therefore performed a distant sacrifice to the assembled gods, asking them to choose which son should preside over the altars of state. Secretly, he and Lady Ba buried a jade disc inside a chamber, then summoned the five princes to fast and enter. Prince Kang (the future King Kang) stepped over the jade. Prince Wei (the future King Ling) brushed it with his elbow. Zibi and Zixi both kept their distance from it. Prince Qiji was still an infant; he was carried in, and when he bowed, his sash-button pressed directly onto the jade. Thus King Kang was installed as the eldest, but his son lost the throne. Wei became King Ling, but was killed in his own lifetime. Zibi was king for barely ten days. Zixi never acceded and was killed alongside Zibi. All four branches died without heirs. Only Qiji eventually took the throne as King Ping and carried on the ancestral sacrifices of Chu — exactly as the divine omen had foretold.

Earlier, when Zibi returned from Jin, Han Xuanzi asked Shu Xiang: "Will Zibi succeed?" Shu Xiang replied: "He will not." Han Xuanzi said: "People who share a common enemy seek each other out, like merchants at a fair. Why would he fail?" Shu Xiang answered: "Without people who share your affections, who will share your enmities? Seizing a state involves five difficulties: having favor but no supporters — that is the first. Having supporters but no patron — the second. Having a patron but no strategy — the third. Having strategy but no popular base — the fourth. Having a popular base but no virtue — the fifth. Zibi has been in Jin for thirteen years, yet no communication between Jin's and Chu's followers has been reported — one may say he has no supporters. His clan is destroyed, his kin have turned against him — he has no patron. He acts without provocation — he has no strategy. He has spent his life as a dependent exile — he has no popular base. In exile, no one mourned his departure — he has no virtue. Though the king is tyrannical and heedless, Zibi faces all five difficulties in attempting to overthrow him. Who can help him succeed? The one who will rule Chu is surely Qiji. He governs Chen and Cai; the lands beyond Fangcheng defer to him. There is no harsh oppression, banditry is suppressed, private desires are kept in check, and the people bear no resentment. The gods have already chosen him, and the people trust him. When disorder strikes the Xiong clan, the youngest always prevails — this is Chu's pattern."

In King Ping's second year, he sent Fei Wuji to Qin to fetch a bride for Crown Prince Jian. The bride was beautiful. Before she arrived, Fei Wuji hurried back and told King Ping: "The Qin girl is beautiful — you should marry her yourself and find another bride for the crown prince." King Ping accepted this advice, married the Qin woman himself, and fathered Xiong Zhen by her. A different bride was found for the crown prince. At this time, Wu She served as the crown prince's Senior Tutor and Fei Wuji as his Junior Tutor. Fei Wuji had no favor with the crown prince and constantly slandered him. Prince Jian was then fifteen years old; his mother was a woman of Cai who had lost the king's favor, and the king gradually distanced himself from the prince.

In the sixth year, the king sent Crown Prince Jian to reside at Chengfu to guard the border. Fei Wuji continued slandering the prince to the king day and night: "Ever since I brought the Qin woman, the crown prince has harbored resentment. He cannot help but blame Your Majesty. You should take precautions. Moreover, the crown prince is at Chengfu with troops under his command and diplomatic contacts with other lords — he is about to march on the capital." King Ping summoned the prince's tutor Wu She and rebuked him. Wu She, knowing Fei Wuji was behind the slander, said: "How can Your Majesty let a petty minister drive a wedge between father and son?" Fei Wuji said: "If you do not act now, you will regret it later." The king thereupon imprisoned Wu She. He ordered Marshal Fen Yang to summon Crown Prince Jian, intending to execute him. The prince heard of it and fled to Song.

Fei Wuji said: "Wu She has two sons. If they are not killed, they will become a calamity for Chu. Offer to spare their father in order to summon them — they will certainly come." The king sent a messenger to tell Wu She: "If you can bring your two sons, you will live; if not, you will die." Wu She said: "Shang will come. Xu will not." The king asked why. Wu She said: "Shang is upright, ready to die for honor, devoted and humane. Hearing that he can save his father by coming, he will certainly come, regardless of his own death. Xu is intelligent and fond of planning, brave and proud of his achievements. Knowing he will die if he comes, he certainly will not come. But the one who will bring calamity upon Chu is this son." The king sent men to summon them, saying: "Come, and your father will be spared." Wu Shang said to Wu Xu: "To hear that our father can be saved and not go — that is unfilial. To see our father killed and not seek revenge — that is foolish. To assess one's ability to accomplish something — that is wisdom. You must go. I will go back and die." Wu Shang returned. Wu Xu drew his bow, nocked an arrow, came out to face the messengers, and said: "Our father is charged with a crime — why summon his sons?" He made as if to shoot, and the messengers fled. He then escaped to Wu. When Wu She heard the news, he said: "Now that Xu has escaped, Chu is in danger." The Chu court then executed Wu She and Wu Shang.

In the tenth year, the mother of Crown Prince Jian was residing at Juchao and secretly communicated with Wu. Wu sent Gongzi Guang to attack Chu, defeating Chen and Cai and carrying off Prince Jian's mother. Chu was alarmed and fortified the walls of Ying. The conflict had originated when children from the Wu border town of Beiliang and the Chu border town of Zhongli quarreled over mulberry trees. The two families attacked each other in anger, and the Beiliang people were wiped out. The Beiliang magistrate, furious, raised the town's militia and attacked Zhongli. The King of Chu, enraged, sent the national army and destroyed Beiliang. The King of Wu, even more furious, also sent troops. He dispatched Gongzi Guang, who used Prince Jian's mother's household as a base to attack Chu, destroying Zhongli and Juchao. Only then did Chu become alarmed enough to fortify Ying.

In the thirteenth year, King Ping died. General Zichang said: "The Crown Prince Zhen is young, and moreover his mother was originally the bride intended for the former crown prince Jian." He proposed installing Zixi, a half-brother of King Ping, as king instead. Zixi was a man of principle. He said: "The state has its standing rules. To change the succession breeds disorder, and to propose such a change invites execution." So Crown Prince Zhen was enthroned as King Zhao.

In King Zhao's first year, the Chu populace was bitter against Fei Wuji, because his slanders had driven Crown Prince Jian into exile, caused the death of Wu She and his son, and destroyed Xi Wan. Members of Xi Wan's Boshi clan, including Zi Pi, along with Wu Zixu, had all fled to Wu, and Wu's armies repeatedly invaded Chu. The people's hatred of Fei Wuji was intense. The Chief Minister Zichang executed Fei Wuji to appease the public, and the people were pleased.

In the fourth year, three Wu princes defected to Chu, which enfeoffed them as a buffer against Wu. In the fifth year, Wu attacked and seized Chu's cities of Liu and Qian. In the seventh year, Chu sent Zichang to attack Wu, but Wu inflicted a major defeat on Chu at Yuzhang.

In the winter of the tenth year, King Helu of Wu, together with Wu Zixu and Bo Pi, joined forces with Tang and Cai to invade Chu. Chu suffered a catastrophic defeat, and Wu's armies entered the capital Ying, where they desecrated King Ping's tomb — this was because of Wu Zixu's vendetta. When Wu's forces approached, Chu had sent Zichang with an army to meet them, deploying on both sides of the Han River. Wu defeated Zichang, who fled to Zheng. The Chu army collapsed and Wu pursued them relentlessly, fighting five battles before reaching Ying. On the jimao day, King Zhao fled the capital. On the gengchen day, the Wu army entered Ying.

King Zhao fled as far as Yunmeng. The people of Yunmeng did not recognize him as their king and shot him, wounding him. The king fled on to Yun. The Lord of Yun's brother Huai said: "King Ping killed my father. Now let me kill his son — is that not fair?" The Lord of Yun restrained him, but fearing Huai might still assassinate King Zhao, he fled with the king to Sui. When the King of Wu learned that King Zhao had gone to Sui, he advanced and attacked it, telling the Sui people: "All the descendants of the Zhou royal house who were enfeoffed between the Yangtze and the Han — Chu destroyed every one of them." He intended to kill King Zhao. The king's attendant Ziqi hid the king deep within the city, then impersonated him and told the Sui people: "Hand me over to Wu." The Sui people performed a divination on whether to surrender him to Wu; the result was inauspicious. They therefore told the King of Wu: "King Zhao has fled; he is not in Sui." Wu requested permission to enter and search, but Sui refused. Wu withdrew.

When King Zhao had first fled Ying, he sent Shen Baoxu to request aid from Qin. Qin dispatched five hundred war chariots to rescue Chu. Chu also rallied its remaining scattered troops and, together with Qin, struck Wu. In the sixth month of the eleventh year, they defeated Wu at Ji. It happened that the King of Wu's brother Fugai, seeing that Wu's forces were being defeated, fled home and proclaimed himself king. When Helu heard this, he withdrew from Chu and returned to attack Fugai. Fugai was defeated and fled to Chu, which enfeoffed him at Tangxi, and his line became known as the Tangxi clan.

King Zhao destroyed Tang and, in the ninth month, returned to Ying. In the twelfth year, Wu again attacked Chu and captured Fan. Chu, alarmed, abandoned Ying and moved its capital northward to Ruo.

In the sixteenth year, Confucius served as minister in Lu. In the twentieth year, Chu destroyed Dun and Hu. In the twenty-first year, King Helu of Wu attacked Yue. King Goujian of Yue shot and mortally wounded the King of Wu, who subsequently died. Wu thereafter bore a grudge against Yue and ceased its westward campaigns against Chu.

In the spring of the twenty-seventh year, Wu attacked Chen. King Zhao of Chu went to Chen's rescue, stationing his army at Chengfu. In the tenth month, King Zhao fell ill in camp. A red cloud shaped like a bird appeared, flanking the sun in flight. King Zhao consulted the Grand Astrologer of Zhou, who said: "This is harmful to the King of Chu, but the misfortune can be transferred to his generals and ministers." The generals and ministers, upon hearing this, offered to undergo the ritual sacrifice on the king's behalf. King Zhao said: "My generals and ministers are my arms and legs. To shift the calamity onto them — how would that preserve this body of mine?" He refused. When divination identified the Yellow River as the source of the curse, his ministers urged him to pray to the River. King Zhao said: "Since my ancestors received their fief, our sacrificial obligations extend no further than the Yangtze and the Han. The Yellow River is not a power we have offended." He forbade the prayer. Confucius, who was in Chen at the time, heard these words and said: "King Zhao of Chu understands the great Way. That he did not lose his state — how fitting!"

King Zhao's illness worsened. He summoned the princes and ministers and said: "I have been without talent. Twice I brought humiliation upon Chu's armies. That I may now die of natural causes is my good fortune." He offered the throne to his brother Gongzi Shen, who declined. He offered it to the next brother, Gongzi Jie, who also declined. He then offered it to the next brother, Gongzi Lü. After five refusals, Lü at last agreed. As battle was imminent, on the gengyin day, King Zhao died in camp. Gongzi Lü said: "The king was gravely ill and, setting aside his own sons, offered the succession to his ministers. I accepted only to ease the king's mind. Now that our lord has died, how could I dare ignore his sons?" He consulted with Zixi and Ziqi, concealed the army's movements, closed the roads, and sent for Prince Zhang, the king's son by a woman of Yue, installing him as King Hui. Only then did they withdraw the army and return to bury King Zhao.

In King Hui's second year, Zixi summoned Sheng — the son of the late Crown Prince Jian of King Ping's era — from Wu and appointed him magistrate of Chao, with the title Bai Gong (Lord of Bai). Bai Gong was fond of military arts and cultivated men of valor, harboring a desire for revenge. In the sixth year, Bai Gong requested that Chief Minister Zixi dispatch troops to attack Zheng. His father, Crown Prince Jian, had fled to Zheng and been killed there; Bai Gong himself had escaped to Wu before Zixi recalled him. This was the basis of his grudge against Zheng. Zixi promised to act but never mobilized the army. In the eighth year, Jin attacked Zheng. Zheng appealed to Chu for help, and Chu sent Zixi to rescue Zheng — but Zixi accepted a bribe and withdrew. Bai Gong Sheng was furious. He and his retainers, fierce warriors led by Shi Qi, launched a sudden assault and killed Chief Minister Zixi and Ziqi in the court. They then seized King Hui, confined him in the Gaofu, and intended to kill him. The king's attendant Qu Gu carried the king on his back and fled to the palace of King Zhao's consort. Bai Gong proclaimed himself king. After about a month, the Duke of Ye came to Chu's rescue. He and King Hui's loyalists together attacked Bai Gong and killed him. King Hui was restored to the throne. In the same year, Chu destroyed the state of Chen and converted it into a commandery.

In the thirteenth year, King Fuchai of Wu, at the height of his power, was bullying Qi and Jin and came to attack Chu. In the sixteenth year, Yue destroyed Wu. In the forty-second year, Chu destroyed Cai. In the forty-fourth year, Chu destroyed Qi. Chu made peace with Qin. By this time, Yue had destroyed Wu but could not maintain control over the lands north of the Yangtze and Huai rivers. Chu expanded eastward, extending its territory as far as the Si River region.

In the fifty-seventh year, King Hui died. His son, King Jian (Zhong), succeeded him.

In King Jian's first year, Chu launched a northern campaign and destroyed Ju. In the eighth year, Marquis Wen of Wei, Lord Wu of Han, and Lord Huan of Zhao were for the first time recognized as feudal lords.

In the twenty-fourth year, King Jian died. His son, King Sheng, succeeded him. In King Sheng's sixth year, bandits killed King Sheng. His son, King Dao (Xiong Yi), succeeded him.

In King Dao's second year, the Three Jin states invaded Chu, advancing as far as Chengqiu before withdrawing. In the fourth year, Chu attacked Zhou. Zheng killed Ziyang. In the ninth year, Chu attacked Han and took Fushu. In the eleventh year, the Three Jin attacked Chu and defeated our forces at Daliang and Yuguan. Chu offered lavish bribes to Qin and made peace with it.

In the twenty-first year, King Dao died. His son, King Su (Zang), succeeded him.

In King Su's fourth year, Shu attacked Chu and seized Zifang. Chu thereupon built the Han Pass to defend against them. In the tenth year, Wei took Luyang from Chu. In the eleventh year, King Su died without an heir. His brother, Xiong Liangfu, was installed as King Xuan.

In King Xuan's sixth year, the Son of Heaven sent congratulations to Duke Xian of Qin. Qin was beginning to grow strong again, while the Three Jin continued to expand and Wei under King Hui and Qi under King Wei were especially powerful. In the thirtieth year, Qin enfeoffed Wei Yang at Shang, and Qin encroached southward into Chu's territory. In that same year, King Xuan died. His son, King Wei (Xiong Shang), succeeded him.

In the fourth year of King Su, Shu attacked Chu and seized Zifang. Chu thereupon built the Han Pass to block them. In the tenth year, Wei took Luyang from Chu. In the eleventh year, King Su died without an heir, and his younger brother Xiong Liangfu was installed. He was King Xuan.

In the sixth year of King Xuan, the Zhou Son of Heaven congratulated Duke Xian of Qin. Qin was beginning to recover its strength, while the three states of Jin grew ever larger, with King Hui of Wei and King Wei of Qi being particularly powerful. In the thirtieth year, Qin enfeoffed Wei Yang at Shang, and he encroached southward on Chu. That same year, King Xuan died, and his son King Wei, Xiong Shang, succeeded him.

In the sixth year of King Wei, King Xian of Zhou presented sacrificial meat from the rites of Kings Wen and Wu to King Hui of Qin.

In the seventh year, Tian Ying, the father of Lord Mengchang of Qi, offended Chu. King Wei of Chu attacked Qi and defeated them at Xuzhou, then demanded that Qi expel Tian Ying. Tian Ying was alarmed. Zhang Chou pretended to advise the King of Chu, saying: "The reason Your Majesty won at Xuzhou is that Tian Panzi was not employed. Panzi has merit in the state, and the common people serve him willingly. Tian Ying dismissed him in favor of Shen Ji. Shen Ji commands no loyalty from the great ministers, and the people will not fight for him — that is why Your Majesty prevailed. Now if Your Majesty expels Tian Ying, Panzi will certainly be put in charge again. He will rally the troops and meet Your Majesty in battle, and the result will not be favorable for you." The King of Chu therefore did not insist on Tian Ying's expulsion.

In the eleventh year, King Wei died, and his son King Huai, Xiong Huai, succeeded him. Wei, hearing of Chu's mourning, attacked and took Mount Xing from Chu.

In the first year of King Huai, Zhang Yi first became chancellor of King Hui of Qin. In the fourth year, King Hui of Qin formally assumed the title of king.

In the sixth year, Chu sent the Pillar of State Zhao Yang to lead an army against Wei. He defeated Wei at Xiangling and captured eight cities. He then redirected his forces to attack Qi. The King of Qi was alarmed. Chen Zhen happened to be in Qi as an envoy from Qin. The King of Qi asked: "What can be done about this?" Chen Zhen said: "Your Majesty need not worry. Allow me to make him withdraw."

He went to Zhao Yang's camp and said: "May I ask — under Chu's laws, what honor is given to a general who destroys an army and kills its commander?" Zhao Yang replied: "The rank of Senior Pillar of State and the highest noble title, Holder of the Jade Tablet." Chen Zhen asked: "Is there any rank higher than that?" Zhao Yang said: "Only the office of Chief Minister."

Chen Zhen said: "You are already Chief Minister — the highest position in the state. Allow me an analogy. A man gave his servants a single goblet of wine. The servants said to one another: 'There is not enough for all of us to drink. Let us each draw a snake on the ground, and whoever finishes first shall drink it alone.' One man finished first and raised the goblet, saying: 'I can even add legs to it.' But while he was drawing the legs, another man finished his snake, snatched the goblet away, and drank, saying: 'A snake has no legs. By adding legs, you made something that is not a snake.' Now you serve as Chu's Chief Minister and have crushed Wei, destroying its army and killing its general — no achievement could be greater, and no rank can be added to yours. If you now attack Qi and succeed, your rank and office will not increase. If you fail, you die and lose everything, bringing ruin on Chu. This is the parable of drawing legs on a snake. Better to withdraw your army and earn Qi's gratitude — this is the art of knowing when to stop."

Zhao Yang said: "Well spoken," and withdrew his forces.

The rulers of Yan and Han first assumed the title of king. Qin sent Zhang Yi to meet with Chu, Qi, and Wei, and they swore an alliance at Niesang.

In the eleventh year, Su Qin organized a Vertical Alliance of the six states east of the mountains to jointly attack Qin, with King Huai of Chu as the alliance's leader. They advanced as far as Hangu Pass, but Qin sent troops out to strike the six states, and all six armies withdrew and returned home. Only Qi lingered behind. In the twelfth year, King Min of Qi defeated the armies of Zhao and Wei, while Qin likewise defeated Han, and Qi and Qin vied for supremacy.

In the sixteenth year, Qin wished to attack Qi, but Chu was bound to Qi by the Vertical Alliance. King Hui of Qin was troubled by this, so he publicly announced that Zhang Yi had been dismissed as chancellor and sent Zhang Yi south to see the King of Chu.

Zhang Yi told King Huai: "No one delights our king more than Your Majesty, and no one would I myself rather serve as a mere gatekeeper. But no one does our king detest more than the King of Qi, and no one do I detest more either. Yet Your Majesty is allied with Qi — and so our king cannot serve you, nor can I serve as your gatekeeper. If Your Majesty will close your borders and break with Qi, I will have an envoy accompany me west to reclaim for Chu the Shangyu territory of six hundred li that Qin previously took. In this way, you weaken Qi to the north, earn Qin's gratitude to the west, and privately gain Shangyu's wealth — one plan yielding three benefits at once."

King Huai was overjoyed. He bestowed the chancellor's seal on Zhang Yi, held banquets with him daily, and publicly announced: "I have recovered our Shangyu lands!" All his ministers offered congratulations — except Chen Zhen, who offered condolences.

King Huai asked: "Why?"

Chen Zhen replied: "The reason Qin values Your Majesty is that you are allied with Qi. Now you will break with Qi before receiving any land — Chu will be isolated. Why would Qin value an isolated state? It will certainly hold Chu in contempt. Moreover, if Qin were to hand over the land first and then have you break with Qi, the scheme would fail. So Qin will insist you break with Qi first and claim the land afterward — at which point Zhang Yi will certainly cheat you. Once he cheats you, Your Majesty will resent him. Resentment means you provoke Qin to the west while severing ties with Qi to the north. With both states' armies bearing down on you, the result is certain. That is why I offer condolences."

King Huai would not listen and sent a general west to receive the territory.

When Zhang Yi reached Qin, he feigned a drunken fall from his carriage and claimed illness, refusing to appear at court for three months. The land could not be obtained. King Huai said: "Perhaps Zhang Yi thinks my break with Qi was not thorough enough?" So he sent a warrior named Song Yi north to publicly insult the King of Qi. The King of Qi was enraged, snapped the Chu tally in two, and allied with Qin.

Once Qin and Qi had joined together, Zhang Yi at last appeared at court. He told the Chu general: "Why have you not come to receive the land? From such-and-such a point to such-and-such a point — six li in extent."

The Chu general said: "My orders specified six hundred li. I have heard nothing about six li."

He returned to report to King Huai. The king was furious and raised an army to attack Qin.

Chen Zhen again advised: "Attacking Qin is not the right strategy. Better to bribe Qin with one of your major cities and then join Qin in attacking Qi. What was lost to Qin can be recovered from Qi, and our state can still be preserved. Now Your Majesty has broken with Qi and is quarreling with Qin over its deception — you have united Qin and Qi against you and drawn the armies of all under heaven upon yourself. The state will suffer greatly."

King Huai would not listen. He severed all relations with Qin and launched his forces westward against it. Qin likewise sent its armies to strike back.

In the spring of the seventeenth year, Chu fought Qin at Danyang. Qin inflicted a devastating defeat on the Chu army, beheading eighty thousand armored soldiers, capturing the supreme commander Qu Gai, the deputy general Fenghou Chou, and over seventy other officers, and then seizing the entire commandery of Hanzhong.

King Huai was enraged and mobilized the full national army to strike back at Qin. They fought at Lantian, where the Chu army was again crushingly defeated. Han and Wei, learning of Chu's predicament, launched a surprise attack from the south, advancing as far as Deng. When Chu received word, it was forced to withdraw its army and return home.

In the eighteenth year, Qin sent an envoy offering to restore friendly relations with Chu and to cede half of Hanzhong as a peace settlement. King Huai said: "I would rather have Zhang Yi than the land." When Zhang Yi heard this, he requested permission to go to Chu. The King of Qin said: "Chu is determined to have your head. What will you do?" Zhang Yi replied: "I am on good terms with the king's attendant Jin Shang, and Jin Shang has influence over Lady Zheng Xiu, the king's favorite consort — whatever she says, the king obeys. Moreover, having cheated Chu with the Shangyu promise and provoked a great war, I cannot resolve the enmity without going in person to apologize. Besides, as long as Your Majesty is alive, Chu would not dare to harm me. And if killing me truly benefits our state, that is my wish."

Zhang Yi went to Chu. Upon arrival, King Huai refused to see him, had him thrown into prison, and intended to execute him. Zhang Yi secretly contacted Jin Shang. Jin Shang petitioned King Huai: "If you imprison Zhang Yi, the King of Qin will be furious. When all under heaven see that Chu has lost Qin, they will hold Your Majesty in contempt." He also told Lady Zheng Xiu: "The King of Qin dearly loves Zhang Yi. Since your king means to kill him, Qin will offer the six counties of Shangyong as a bribe, send a beauty to be the king's consort, and provide a skilled palace singer as her attendant. The king prizes territory, so the Qin woman will become his new favorite, and my lady will be cast aside. It would be better for you to speak up and have Zhang Yi released."

Zheng Xiu went to the king and secured Zhang Yi's release. Once free, King Huai treated Zhang Yi generously. Zhang Yi persuaded the king to abandon the Vertical Alliance and ally with Qin through a marriage pact.

After Zhang Yi had departed, Qu Yuan returned from his embassy to Qi and remonstrated: "Why did you not execute Zhang Yi?" King Huai regretted his decision and sent men to pursue Zhang Yi, but they could not catch him. That year, King Hui of Qin died.

In the twentieth year, King Min of Qi wished to become leader of the Vertical Alliance and was displeased that Chu had allied with Qin. He therefore sent an envoy bearing a letter to the King of Chu:

"I am concerned that Your Majesty has not considered what is truly honorable. Now that King Hui of Qin is dead, King Wu has succeeded him, Zhang Yi has fled to Wei, and Qin employs Chuli Ji and Gongsun Yan — yet Chu still serves Qin. Chuli Ji is close to Han, and Gongsun Yan is close to Wei. If Chu insists on serving Qin, Han and Wei will grow alarmed and use these two men to seek accommodation with Qin. Then Yan and Zhao will also submit to Qin. Once four states compete to serve Qin, Chu will be reduced to a Qin commandery.

"Why does Your Majesty not join forces with me to rally Han, Wei, Yan, and Zhao into a Vertical Alliance, honor the house of Zhou, halt military operations, give the people rest, and issue commands to all under heaven? No one would dare refuse to comply, and Your Majesty's reputation would be made. If Your Majesty then leads the allied lords in a combined assault, Qin will certainly be destroyed. Your Majesty would take Wuguan and the lands of Shu and Han, command the wealth of Wu and Yue and monopolize the profits of the rivers and seas, while Han and Wei would cede Shangdang and press westward to Hangu Pass. Chu's strength would then match a million. Moreover, Your Majesty was deceived by Zhang Yi, lost Hanzhong, and suffered defeat at Lantian — all under heaven feels indignation on your behalf. Yet you would rush to serve Qin first! I beg Your Majesty to consider this carefully."

King Huai had already been inclined to make peace with Qin, but upon reading the King of Qi's letter, he wavered and could not decide. He submitted the matter for debate among his ministers. Some argued for making peace with Qin; others urged following Qi's proposal.

Zhao Ju said: "Even if Your Majesty conquers territory from Yue in the east, that will not be enough to wipe away your shame. Only by recovering land from Qin can your honor be restored before the lords. Your Majesty should cultivate deep friendships with Qi and Han so as to increase the influence of Chuli Ji. In this way, you gain the combined weight of Han and Qi to press for the return of your lands.

"After Qin broke Han at Yiyang, Han still served Qin because the ancestral tombs of its former kings are at Pingyang, and Qin's garrison at Wusui is only seventy li away — Han fears Qin above all. Otherwise, if Qin attacks Sanchuan, Zhao attacks Shangdang, and Chu attacks Hewai, Han would surely perish. Chu's rescue of Han may not be able to prevent Han's destruction, yet the state that preserves Han is Chu. Once Han recovers Wusui from Qin and uses the Yellow River and mountains as its barrier, no state will have earned more of Han's gratitude than Chu — Han will serve Your Majesty with urgency.

"Qi trusts Han because the Han prince Mei serves as Qi's chancellor. Once Han has recovered Wusui and Your Majesty is on excellent terms with both states, have Qi and Han lend their weight to Chuli Ji. With Qi and Han backing him, his ruler will not dare discard him. Add Chu's weight as well, and Chuli Ji will certainly persuade the King of Qin to return the territories taken from Chu."

King Huai approved this plan. In the end, he did not ally with Qin but instead joined with Qi and cultivated good relations with Han.

In the twenty-fourth year, Chu betrayed Qi and allied with Qin. King Zhao of Qin had just come to the throne and lavished gifts on Chu. Chu sent to receive a Qin bride. In the twenty-fifth year, King Huai went in person to meet King Zhao of Qin, and they swore a covenant at Huangji. Qin returned Shangyong to Chu.

In the twenty-sixth year, Qi, Han, and Wei — angered that Chu had abandoned the Vertical Alliance to side with Qin — jointly attacked Chu. Chu sent its crown prince to Qin as a hostage and requested military aid. Qin dispatched the guest minister Tong with troops to relieve Chu, and the three states withdrew.

In the twenty-seventh year, a Qin official had a private altercation with the Chu crown prince. The crown prince killed him and fled back to Chu. In the twenty-eighth year, Qin joined with Qi, Han, and Wei to attack Chu. They killed the Chu general Tang Mo, seized Chongqiu, and withdrew. In the twenty-ninth year, Qin attacked Chu again and inflicted a crushing defeat. Twenty thousand Chu soldiers died, and Chu's general Jing Que was killed. King Huai was alarmed and sent his crown prince as a hostage to Qi to sue for peace. In the thirtieth year, Qin attacked Chu once more and took eight cities.

King Zhao of Qin sent a letter to the King of Chu: "When we first pledged brotherhood and swore the covenant at Huangji, with your crown prince as hostage, our joy was complete. But the crown prince arrogantly killed one of my senior officials and fled without apology. I could not contain my anger and sent troops against your borders. Now I hear that Your Majesty has sent the crown prince as a hostage to Qi to sue for peace. Our two states share a common border and have long been joined by marriage — our closeness goes back many years. If Qin and Chu are not on good terms, we cannot command the other lords. I wish to meet Your Majesty at Wuguan, where we may confer face to face, swear a new covenant, and depart. This is my sincere desire. I venture to bring this to Your Majesty's attention."

King Huai read the letter and was troubled. He wanted to go but feared being deceived; he did not want to go but feared provoking Qin's anger. Zhao Ju said: "Your Majesty must not go. Mobilize your troops and defend your borders. Qin is a tiger and a wolf — it cannot be trusted and harbors ambitions to swallow the lords."

But the king's son Zilan urged him to go, saying: "How can we reject Qin's gesture of friendship?"

So King Huai went to meet King Zhao of Qin. King Zhao had secretly posted a general with concealed troops at Wuguan, with orders to impersonate the King of Qin. When the King of Chu arrived, Wuguan was sealed behind him. He was escorted west to Xianyang, presented at the Zhang Terrace as though he were a vassal tributary, and not accorded the courtesies due an equal sovereign.

King Huai was furious and bitterly regretted not heeding Zhao Ju's words. Qin detained the King of Chu and demanded the cession of the commanderies of Wu and Qianzhong. The King of Chu wished to negotiate a covenant, but Qin insisted on receiving the territory first. King Huai said in rage: "Qin deceived me and now extorts territory by force!" He refused to grant Qin's demands. Qin kept him in detention.

Chu's senior ministers were alarmed. They deliberated together: "Our king is in Qin and cannot return — they are extorting territory from him. Meanwhile, the crown prince is a hostage in Qi. If Qi and Qin conspire together, Chu will cease to exist as a state." They resolved to install one of King Huai's sons who was still in Chu.

Zhao Ju objected: "The king and the crown prince are both held by foreign states. To defy the king's authority by installing a secondary son would be improper." So they sent a false report of King Huai's death to Qi.

King Min of Qi said to his chancellor: "We should keep the crown prince and demand Chu's territory north of the Huai River." The chancellor replied: "That will not do. If Ying installs a new king, we will be holding a worthless hostage while appearing unjust to all under heaven."

Another adviser said: "On the contrary — if Ying installs a new king, we can bargain with the new king: 'Give us the Lower Eastern Territory, and we will kill the crown prince for you. Otherwise, we will join with three other states to install him.' Then the Eastern Territory can certainly be obtained."

The King of Qi ultimately followed his chancellor's advice and returned the Chu crown prince. Crown Prince Heng arrived in Chu and was installed as king — he was King Qingxiang. He sent word to Qin: "By the grace of our ancestral spirits, the state has a king."

In the first year of King Qingxiang, Qin had been unable to extract territorial concessions from King Huai, and now Chu had installed a new king in defiance. King Zhao of Qin was enraged and sent troops out through Wuguan to attack Chu. They inflicted a severe defeat, beheading fifty thousand soldiers, and seized the city of Xi along with fifteen other cities before withdrawing.

In the second year, King Huai escaped from captivity and tried to flee home. Qin discovered his flight and blocked the roads to Chu. The king, in desperation, took a back route and fled to Zhao, hoping to reach Chu through their territory. But Lord Wuling of Zhao was away at Dai, and his son King Hui, who had just assumed power, was afraid and did not dare admit the King of Chu. King Huai tried to make for Wei, but Qin's pursuers caught up. He was handed back to Qin envoys and returned to captivity. King Huai then fell gravely ill.

In the third year of King Qingxiang, King Huai died in Qin. Qin returned his corpse to Chu. The people of Chu all pitied him and mourned as though for their own kin. The other lords condemned Qin as dishonorable. Qin and Chu severed all relations.

In the sixth year, Qin sent Bai Qi to attack Han at Yique, where he won a great victory and beheaded two hundred and forty thousand soldiers. Qin then sent a letter to the King of Chu: "Chu has betrayed Qin. Qin will now lead the lords to attack Chu and settle matters in a single day. We hope Your Majesty will ready his troops — we look forward to a good fight."

King Qingxiang was alarmed and planned to restore peace with Qin. In the seventh year, Chu received a bride from Qin, and the two states were reconciled.

In the eleventh year, Qi and Qin each proclaimed themselves Emperor. After a little more than a month, they abandoned the title and reverted to being kings.

In the fourteenth year, King Qingxiang met amicably with King Zhao of Qin at Wan and cemented their alliance through marriage ties. In the fifteenth year, Chu joined Qin, the three Jin successor states, and Yan in a combined assault on Qi, taking the territory north of the Huai. In the sixteenth year, King Qingxiang met again with King Zhao of Qin at Yan. That autumn, they met once more at Rang.

In the eighteenth year, there was a man of Chu who enjoyed shooting returning geese with a light bow and fine cord. King Qingxiang heard of him and summoned him for an audience.

The man replied: "Your servant's hobby is shooting teal and snaring sparrows — trivial shots with small arrows, hardly worth reporting to a great king. But considering the greatness of Chu and Your Majesty's wisdom, the quarry you should be shooting at is something far grander.

"The ancient Three Kings hunted moral virtue; the Five Hegemons hunted rival states. So Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao are the wild geese; Qi, Lu, Han, and Wey are the mallards; Zou, Fei, Tan, and Pi are the sparrows. Beyond these there is nothing worth shooting. Twelve birds in six pairs — which would Your Majesty take?

"Why not use sages as your bow and warriors as your cord, draw at the right moment, and shoot? These six pairs can be bagged and carried home. The pleasure would be greater than a morning's amusement; the prize greater than ducks and geese.

"At dawn, draw your bow and shoot south of Wei's capital Daliang, then extend your right arm straight through to Han. The roads of the central states would be severed and the commandery of Shangcai destroyed. Turn and shoot east of Yu, sever Wei's left arm, and strike outward at Dingtao — then Wei's eastern territories are abandoned, and the two commanderies of Great Song and Fangyu are taken. With both arms cut off, Wei collapses. Strike at the heart — at Tan — and Daliang itself can be taken. Tie your cord at Lantai, water your horses at the Western River, and settle Wei's Daliang. That is the pleasure of the first shot.

"If Your Majesty truly loves this sport and never tires of it, bring out the precious bow, fit a new cord, and shoot the cormorant over the eastern sea. Sweep back with the Great Wall as your shield — shoot at East Ju in the morning, strike Peiqiu in the evening, hit Jimo by night, then turn and hold the Meridian Road. Everything east of the Great Wall is yours, and everything north of Mount Tai is taken. Link your borders with Zhao to the west and reach Yan to the north. With three states spread out before you, the Vertical Alliance forms without needing a pact. Gaze northward to Yan's Liaodong, look southward to Yue's Kuaiji — that is the pleasure of the second shot.

"As for the twelve minor lords along the Si River, sweep them left and brush them right — they can be finished in a single day.

"Now Qin, having broken Han, suffers prolonged anxiety — it takes walled cities but dares not hold them. Its attack on Wei produced no result, and its strike at Zhao left it wounded in turn. Qin and Wei's fighting strength is exhausted, and Chu's former territories of Hanzhong, Xi, and Li can be recovered. Your Majesty should bring out the precious bow, fit a new cord, cross the Meng barrier, and wait for Qin to tire. Then everything east of the mountains and within the Yellow River can be unified. Give the people rest, and face south as king.

"That said, Qin is a great raptor. It sits with its back to the sea, faces east, its left talon gripping Zhao's southwest, its right talon clutching Chu's Yan and Ying, its breast striking Han and Wei, its head hanging over the central states. Its position is naturally advantageous, its terrain gives it strength. With wings spread and feathers ruffling over three thousand li, Qin cannot simply be beckoned and shot in the dark."

The man had spoken this way to provoke King Qingxiang's anger. The king summoned him for further conversation. The man then said: "Your former king was deceived by Qin and died as a stranger in a foreign land — there is no greater grievance. Even a common man with a grudge can take revenge on a great state: Bai Gong and Wu Zixu proved that. Now Chu has five thousand li of territory and a million armored soldiers — still enough to leap into battle across the central plain. Yet you sit idle and accept humiliation. Your servant privately considers this beneath a great king."

King Qingxiang thereupon sent envoys to the other lords, revived the Vertical Alliance, and planned to attack Qin. When Qin heard of this, it launched an attack on Chu.

Chu wished to ally with Qi and Han to attack Qin, and in the process planned to seize Zhou's territory. King Nan of Zhou sent Lord Wu to tell Chu's chancellor Zhao Zi:

"Your three states propose to carve up Zhou's suburban lands for supply routes and move the ritual vessels south to honor Chu. I believe this is mistaken. To kill the common sovereign and subordinate the lord whom all serve as subjects — the great states will refuse their friendship. To bully the weak with numbers — the small states will not rally to you. Without the friendship of the great or the adherence of the small, you cannot achieve either reputation or substance. Without either, it is not worth troubling the people. The mere rumor of a plot against Zhou does not serve as a worthy banner."

Zhao Zi said: "We do not actually intend to seize Zhou. But why should Zhou be immune?"

Lord Wu replied: "An army less than five times the defenders' strength should not attack; a besieging force less than ten times should not encircle. One Zhou equals twenty Jin cities in difficulty — Your Lordship knows this. Han once brought two hundred thousand troops and was humiliated beneath the walls of Jin. Its best soldiers died and its middle ranks were wounded, yet Jin did not fall. That Your Lordship lacks even the strength of a hundred Hans to attack Zhou is known to all.

"To earn the enmity of both Zhous, alienate Zou and Lu, sever ties with Qi, and lose your reputation throughout all under heaven — that is a dangerous course. Moreover, threatening the two Zhous only enriches the Sanchuan region and necessarily weakens Han beyond Fangcheng.

"Consider: West Zhou's territory, trimmed and rounded, is no more than a hundred li. It bears the name of common sovereign of all under heaven, yet partitioning its land is not enough to enrich a state, and seizing its people is not enough to strengthen an army. Even without attacking it, you bear the name of regicide.

"Yet ambitious rulers and aggressive ministers, whenever they mobilize, always make Zhou their ultimate target. Why? Because they see the ritual vessels there. They covet the vessels and forget the chaos of regicide. If Han sees the vessels in Chu, I fear all under heaven will make war on Chu to recover them.

"Let me offer an analogy. A tiger's flesh is rank and its claws are sharp, yet people still hunt it. But if a marsh deer were to wear a tiger's skin, people would attack it ten thousand times more readily. Carving up Chu's land would sufficiently enrich a state; humbling Chu's name would sufficiently exalt a ruler. Now you propose to murder the common sovereign of all under heaven, possess the vessels handed down from the Three Dynasties, and swallow states in every direction to set yourself above all lords — if that is not greed, what is? The Book of Zhou says: 'Desires arise, and there is no going first.' Therefore, the moment the vessels go south, armies will come."

Chu thereupon abandoned the plan.

In the nineteenth year, Qin attacked Chu. The Chu army was defeated, and Chu ceded Shangyong and the territory north of the Han River to Qin.

In the twenty-first year, the Qin general Bai Qi finally took Ying, the Chu capital, and burned the royal tombs at Yiling. King Qingxiang's forces disintegrated, and he could no longer mount a defense. He retreated northeast and took refuge at the city of Chen.

In the twenty-second year, Qin took Wu and the Qianzhong commandery from Chu as well.

In the twenty-third year, King Qingxiang rallied the troops of his eastern territories, mustering over a hundred thousand, and recaptured fifteen riverside towns that Qin had taken, organizing them into a commandery and establishing a defense line against Qin.

In the twenty-seventh year, Chu sent thirty thousand troops to assist the three Jin successor states in attacking Yan. Chu then made peace with Qin again, sending its crown prince as a hostage to Qin. Chu assigned a Left Assistant to attend the crown prince in Qin.

In the thirty-sixth year, King Qingxiang fell ill. The crown prince escaped and returned home. In autumn, King Qingxiang died, and Crown Prince Xiong Yuan succeeded him as King Kaolie. King Kaolie appointed the Left Assistant as Chief Minister, enfeoffed him at Wu, and he became known as Lord Chunshen.

In the first year of King Kaolie, Chu ceded the district of Zhou to Qin to secure peace. By this time Chu was growing ever weaker.

In the sixth year, Qin besieged Handan, and Zhao sent urgent appeals to Chu. Chu dispatched General Jing Yang to rescue Zhao. In the seventh year, the army reached Xinzhong, and Qin withdrew. In the twelfth year, King Zhao of Qin died, and the King of Chu sent Lord Chunshen to offer condolences and sacrifices in Qin. In the sixteenth year, King Zhuangxiang of Qin died, and Zhao Zheng became King of Qin.

In the twenty-second year, Chu joined the other lords in a combined attack on Qin, but the campaign failed and they withdrew. Chu relocated its capital eastward to Shouchun and renamed it Ying.

In the twenty-fifth year, King Kaolie died, and his son King You, named Han, succeeded him. Li Yuan assassinated Lord Chunshen.

In the third year of King You, Qin and Wei attacked Chu. Qin's chancellor Lu Buwei died. In the ninth year, Qin destroyed Han. In the tenth year, King You died. His full brother You succeeded him as King Ai. King Ai had been on the throne barely two months when the followers of his half-brother Fuchu attacked and killed him, installing Fuchu as king. That same year, Qin captured King Qian of Zhao.

In the first year of King Fuchu, Crown Prince Dan of Yan sent Jing Ke to assassinate the King of Qin. In the second year, Qin sent a general to attack Chu, inflicting a devastating defeat and taking more than ten cities. In the third year, Qin destroyed Wei. In the fourth year, the Qin general Wang Jian defeated the Chu army at Qi and killed General Xiang Yan.

In the fifth year, the Qin generals Wang Jian and Meng Wu finally conquered the state of Chu, captured King Fuchu, and abolished Chu, converting its territory into commanderies.

The Grand Historian remarks:

When King Ling of Chu convened the lords at Shen, executed Qing Feng of Qi, built the Zhang Hua Terrace, and sought the Nine Cauldrons of Zhou, his ambition encompassed all under heaven. Yet he ended up starving to death in the house of Shen Hai, a laughingstock to the world. When conduct goes astray — how tragic! The influence of power over men — must one not be cautious?

Qiji seized the throne through disorder, then doted on a Qin woman to the point of depravity — how extreme! He nearly destroyed the state a second time.

[In verse:] Heirs of Yu Xiong, enfeoffed by Zhou at Chu. Remote among the thorns and wilds of Jing, In rags and brambles they hacked their way through. When at last they emerged to dominate, they usurped the title of King — Wu was the first. Wen attacked Shen; Cheng pardoned Xu. Zi Yu usurped the heir; Shang Chen murdered his father. Heaven's calamity brought no repentance; they leaned on villainy and trusted in themselves. Zhao was driven to flight and exile; Huai was pressed into captivity. Qingxiang and Kaolie — the mandate withered in the southern land.