蘇秦列傳

Su Qin was a man of Luoyang in East Zhou. He travelled east to study under a master in Qi, where he received instruction from Master Guigu.

After roaming abroad for several years, he returned home in abject poverty. His brothers, sisters-in-law, sisters, wife, and concubines all secretly laughed at him, saying: "The custom of Zhou people is to manage estates, exert oneself in trade and industry, and pursue a twenty-percent profit as one's occupation. Now you have abandoned this foundation to chase after the art of the tongue — is it any wonder you are destitute?"

Su Qin heard this and was deeply ashamed. Wounded in spirit, he shut himself in his room and would not come out, but brought out all his books and read through them. He said: "A scholar who has already bowed his head and devoted himself to study, yet cannot use it to win honour and distinction — what use are even a great many books?"

Thereupon he obtained the Zhou text Yinfu, and bent over it in study. After a full year he emerged, having mastered the art of appraisal, and declared: "With this I can persuade the rulers of the present age." He sought an audience to persuade King Xian of Zhou. But those around the king had long known Su Qin and all thought little of him. He was not believed.

He then travelled west to Qin. Duke Xiao of Qin had just died. Su Qin addressed King Hui, saying: "Qin is a state enclosed by four natural barriers — backed by mountains, belted by the Wei River, with the pass and the Yellow River to the east, Hanzhong to the west, Ba and Shu to the south, and Dai horses to the north. This is a heaven-endowed storehouse. With Qin's multitude of soldiers and people and its disciplined military training, you could swallow All-Under-Heaven, assume the title of Emperor, and rule."

The King of Qin replied: "When a bird's plumage is not yet fully grown, it cannot fly high; when the principles of governance are not yet clear, one cannot annex others."

He had just executed Shang Yang and loathed persuader-rhetoricians. He refused to employ Su Qin.

He then travelled east to Zhao. Lord Su of Zhao had appointed his younger brother Cheng as chancellor, with the title Lord Fengyang. Lord Fengyang was not pleased by Su Qin's proposals and refused to engage him.

Su Qin departed and travelled to Yan. After more than a year, he finally obtained an audience. He addressed King Wen of Yan:

"Yan has Chaoxian and Liaodong to the east, the Linhu and Loufan peoples to the north, Yunzhong and Jiuyuan to the west, and the Hutuo and Yi Rivers to the south. Its territory spans over two thousand li. It has several hundred thousand armoured troops, six hundred war chariots, six thousand cavalry horses, and grain reserves for several years. To the south lie the riches of Jieshi and Yanmen; to the north, the bounty of dates and chestnuts. Even if the people did not farm, the dates and chestnuts would suffice for their needs. This is what is called a heaven-endowed storehouse.

"Now, for living in peace and security, free from the disaster of armies destroyed and generals slain, no state surpasses Yan. Does Your Majesty know why this is so? The reason Yan has not suffered invasion and the calamity of war is that Zhao serves as a shield to its south. Qin and Zhao have fought five times: Qin won twice and Zhao won three times. Qin and Zhao exhausted each other, while Your Majesty held intact Yan in reserve behind them — this is why Yan has not suffered invasion.

"Moreover, if Qin were to attack Yan, it would have to cross Yunzhong and Jiuyuan, pass through Dai and Shanggu — a distance spanning thousands of li. Even if Qin captured Yan's cities, by its own calculations it could never hold them. That Qin cannot harm Yan is perfectly clear.

"But if Zhao were to attack Yan, it need only issue the order, and within ten days an army of several hundred thousand would be massed at Dongyuan. They would cross the Hutuo, ford the Yi River, and within four or five days be at the gates of the capital.

"Therefore I say: when Qin attacks Yan, the battle is fought a thousand li away; when Zhao attacks Yan, the battle is fought within a hundred li. To ignore the danger at a hundred li while worrying about a threat a thousand li distant — no strategy could be more mistaken. For this reason, I pray that Your Majesty form a vertical alliance with Zhao. If All-Under-Heaven unites as one, then Yan shall surely have no cause for concern."

King Wen said: "What you say is well-reasoned. However, my state is small — pressed by mighty Zhao to the west and close to Qi to the south. Qi and Zhao are both powerful states. If you are truly determined to forge a vertical alliance to secure Yan, then I place my state at your disposal for the alliance."

Thereupon Yan furnished Su Qin with chariots, horses, gold, and silk, and he travelled to Zhao. Lord Fengyang had already died. Su Qin then addressed Lord Su of Zhao directly:

"All the ministers, officials, and commoner-scholars under heaven have long admired Your Lordship's righteous conduct and wished to present themselves before you to offer their loyal counsel. Nevertheless, Lord Fengyang was jealous and kept Your Lordship from managing affairs — and for this reason no visiting scholar dared speak freely in your presence. Now Lord Fengyang has departed this life, and Your Lordship may once again draw close to the scholars and people. Therefore your servant ventures to present his humble thoughts.

"In my private estimation, the best course for Your Lordship is to bring peace to the people and keep them free from trouble — and certainly not to needlessly burden them with affairs. The foundation of bringing peace to the people lies in choosing alliances wisely. If alliances are chosen well, the people will be at peace; if chosen poorly, the people will never know peace in their lives.

"Allow me to speak of the external threats. If Qi and Qin are both enemies, the people cannot be at peace. If you lean on Qin to attack Qi, the people cannot be at peace. If you lean on Qi to attack Qin, the people cannot be at peace. Those who plot against other rulers and attack other states always strive to issue pretexts that sever others' alliances. I pray that Your Lordship never let such words leave your lips.

"Let me distinguish black from white, for the difference amounts to this: yin and yang, nothing more. If Your Lordship will truly heed your servant, Yan will certainly present its furs, dogs, and horses; Qi will certainly present its fish and salt from the sea; Chu will certainly present the bounty of its orange and pomelo groves; Han, Wei, and Zhongshan can all be made to deliver revenue for your sustenance. And your noble kinsmen, fathers, and brothers may all receive fiefdoms as marquises.

"Now, seizing territory and monopolising profit — this is what the Five Hegemons waged war and captured generals to obtain. Enfeoffing kinsmen as nobles — this is what Tang and Wu overthrew tyrants and risked their lives to achieve. Today Your Lordship may sit with folded hands and possess both at once. This is what your servant wishes for Your Lordship.

"If Your Majesty allies with Qin, then Qin will surely weaken Han and Wei. If you ally with Qi, then Qi will surely weaken Chu and Wei. If Wei is weakened, it will cede the lands beyond the Yellow River. If Han is weakened, it will surrender Yiyang. Once Yiyang is surrendered, the Shang Commandery will be cut off. Once the lands beyond the river are ceded, the roads will be impassable. If Chu is weakened, you will have no ally to rely on. These three contingencies must be carefully considered.

"If Qin descends through Zhidao, then Nanyang will be imperilled. If it coerces Han and encircles Zhou, then Zhao will have to take up arms itself. If it occupies Wei and seizes Juan, then Qi will certainly submit to Qin's court. Once Qin has obtained what it desires from east of the mountains, it will muster its full forces and turn toward Zhao. When Qin's armoured troops cross the Yellow River and the Zhang, and occupy Fanwu, then battle will surely be joined beneath the walls of Handan itself. This is what your servant fears on Your Lordship's behalf.

"At the present time, among the established states east of the mountains, none is stronger than Zhao. Zhao's territory spans over two thousand li. It has several hundred thousand armoured troops, a thousand war chariots, ten thousand cavalry horses, and grain reserves for several years. To the west lies Changshan, to the south the Yellow River and the Zhang, to the east the Qing River, and to the north the state of Yan. Yan is inherently a weak state and not to be feared.

"Of all states under heaven, the one Qin considers most dangerous is Zhao. Yet the reason Qin does not dare raise an army to attack Zhao is this: it fears that Han and Wei will strike at its rear. Thus Han and Wei serve as Zhao's southern shield. But when Qin attacks Han and Wei, there are no great mountains or rivers to block its advance — it merely nibbles away at their territory, piece by piece, until it reaches the capital. If Han and Wei cannot withstand Qin, they will submit as Qin's vassals. Once Qin is free from the constraint of Han and Wei, disaster will inevitably fall upon Zhao. This is what your servant fears on Your Lordship's behalf.

"Your servant has heard that Yao possessed no more than three men's share of land, and Shun had not a foot of territory, yet they came to possess All-Under-Heaven. Yu had no assembly of even a hundred men, yet he reigned as king over the feudal lords. The soldiers of Tang and Wu numbered no more than three thousand, their chariots no more than three hundred, their troops no more than thirty thousand, yet they established themselves as Sons of Heaven — for they had truly found the Way.

"Therefore the wise ruler gauges externally the strength and weakness of his enemies, and measures internally the ability and deficiency of his own officers. Without waiting for two armies to meet, the decisive moment of victory or defeat, survival or ruin, has already taken shape in his mind. How could he be swayed by the opinions of the crowd and decide affairs in darkness?

"Your servant has privately examined the map of All-Under-Heaven: the territories of the feudal lords are five times that of Qin; by estimation, the combined soldiers of the feudal lords are ten times those of Qin. If the six states unite as one, join their forces, and march westward to attack Qin, Qin will surely be destroyed. Yet now they face west and serve Qin, presenting themselves as its subjects. To be the one who destroys others versus being destroyed by others, to make others your subjects versus being made a subject — how can these be spoken of in the same breath?

"Those who advocate the horizontal alliance all seek to carve up the feudal lords' territory and hand it to Qin. When Qin achieves its aims, its advocates build lofty terraces and beautify their palaces, listen to the music of reed-organs and zithers, with grand towers and gateways before them and tall, lovely women behind them — while the states suffer Qin's depredations and these men share none of their sorrow. Thus the horizontal alliance advocates labour day and night to wield Qin's power as a threat, intimidating the feudal lords into ceding territory. I therefore pray that Your Majesty deliberate carefully.

"Your servant has heard that the wise ruler cuts through doubt, banishes slander, blocks the tracks of rumour, and seals the gates of factionalism. It is for this reason that your servant is able to present his loyal counsel on how to honour the sovereign, expand territory, and strengthen the army.

"Therefore, in my private estimation, the best course for Your Majesty is to unite Han, Wei, Qi, Chu, Yan, and Zhao in a vertical alliance, and thereby break with Qin. Command the generals and ministers of All-Under-Heaven to convene at the Huan River. Exchange hostages, slaughter a white horse, and swear an oath. The covenant shall read:

'If Qin attacks Chu, Qi and Wei shall each dispatch elite forces to assist, Han shall cut Qin's supply lines, Zhao shall cross the Yellow River and Zhang, and Yan shall guard the north of Changshan. If Qin attacks Han and Wei, Chu shall cut off its rear, Qi shall dispatch elite forces to assist, Zhao shall cross the Yellow River and Zhang, and Yan shall guard Yunzhong. If Qin attacks Qi, Chu shall cut off its rear, Han shall hold Chenggao, Wei shall block its routes, Zhao shall cross the Yellow River, Zhang, and Boguan, and Yan shall dispatch elite forces to assist. If Qin attacks Yan, Zhao shall hold Changshan, Chu shall station troops at Wuguan, Qi shall cross the Bohai, and Han and Wei shall each dispatch elite forces to assist. If Qin attacks Zhao, Han shall station troops at Yiyang, Chu shall station troops at Wuguan, Wei shall station troops beyond the Yellow River, Qi shall cross the Qing River, and Yan shall dispatch elite forces to assist. Any feudal lord who fails to honour the covenant shall be attacked by the combined armies of the other five states.'

"If the six states form a vertical alliance and hold Qin in check, then Qin's armoured troops will surely never dare emerge from Hangu Pass to threaten the states east of the mountains. Thus shall the enterprise of a hegemon-king be accomplished."

The King of Zhao said: "I am young in years and have occupied the throne but a short time. Never before have I heard of a long-term strategy for the altars of soil and grain. Now that our honoured guest intends to preserve All-Under-Heaven and bring peace to the feudal lords, I respectfully commit my state to the alliance."

He thereupon furnished a retinue of a hundred decorated chariots, a thousand yi of gold, a hundred pairs of white jade discs, and a thousand bolts of brocade and embroidery, to be used in securing the covenant of the feudal lords.

At this time, the Son of Heaven of Zhou presented the sacrificial meat of Kings Wen and Wu to King Hui of Qin. King Hui dispatched Xiushou to attack Wei. Xiushou captured the general Long Jia and seized Wei's Diaoyin, and Qin was preparing to march its armies eastward.

Su Qin, fearing that Qin's forces would reach Zhao, deliberately provoked Zhang Yi into a fury and engineered his entry into Qin.

Su Qin then addressed King Xuan of Han:

"Han has the strongholds of Gong and Chenggao to the north, the passes of Yiyang and Shangban to the west, Wan, Rang, and the Wei River to the east, and Mount Xing to the south. Its territory spans over nine hundred li, and it has several hundred thousand armoured troops.

"All the mighty bows and powerful crossbows under heaven come from Han. The Xiezi, the Shaofu Shili, and the Julai — all can shoot beyond six hundred paces. Han's soldiers draw the bow with a leaping stance and fire without pause, a hundred shots in succession. At long range their bolts pierce through the chest; at close range the arrowheads bury themselves in the heart.

"The swords and halberds of Han's soldiers all come from the famous forges of Mingshan, Tangxi, Moyang, Hefu, Dengshi, Wanfeng, Longyuan, and Tai'e. On land they cleave oxen and horses; on water they sever swans and geese. Against the enemy they slash through hard armour and iron curtains. Leather armguards and ceremonial vessels — all are fully equipped.

"With the valour of Han's soldiers, clad in heavy armour, treading powerful crossbows, and bearing sharp swords — one man is a match for a hundred; this is no exaggeration.

"Yet with Han's might and Your Majesty's virtue, you now face west and serve Qin, folding your arms in submission, bringing shame to the altars of soil and grain and making yourself the laughingstock of All-Under-Heaven. Nothing could be more disgraceful than this. For this reason, I pray that Your Majesty deliberate carefully.

"If Your Majesty serves Qin, Qin will certainly demand Yiyang and Chenggao. Surrender them this year, and next year Qin will demand still more territory. Give, and you will have no land left to give. Refuse, and you throw away your prior concessions and invite fresh disaster. Moreover, Your Majesty's territory has a limit, but Qin's demands have none. To meet limitless demands with limited territory — this is what is called 'purchasing enmity and accumulating disaster.' Without even fighting, your territory will already have been whittled away.

"Your servant has heard a common saying: 'Better to be a rooster's beak than a bull's rump.' To face west, fold your arms, and serve Qin as a vassal — how does this differ from being the bull's rump? With Your Majesty's virtue and the strength of Han's army, to bear the name of 'bull's rump' — your servant is privately ashamed on Your Majesty's behalf."

At this the King of Han flushed with anger. He bared his arms, glared with fury, gripped his sword, and looked up to heaven with a great sigh, saying: "Though I am unworthy, I will never consent to serve Qin. Now that you, my lord, convey the instruction of the King of Zhao, I respectfully commit my altars of soil and grain to the alliance."

Su Qin then addressed King Xiang of Wei:

"Your Majesty's territory has the Hong Canal, Chen, Runan, Xu, Yan, Kunyang, Zhaoling, Wuyang, Xindu, and Xinqi to the south; the Huai and Ying Rivers, Zao, and Wuxu to the east; the Long Wall as its western boundary; and Hewai, Juan, Yan, and Suanzao to the north. The territory spans a thousand li. Though each place-name may sound small, the farmsteads, houses, and buildings are so densely packed that there is not even room left for grazing pasture. The populace is vast and the chariots and horses so numerous that they travel without ceasing day and night, rumbling and thundering as though an entire army were on the march. In my private estimation, Your Majesty's state is no less than Chu.

"Yet the horizontal alliance advocates have frightened Your Majesty into befriending the tiger-and-wolf state of mighty Qin, inviting the destruction of All-Under-Heaven. Ultimately, when the calamity of Qin arrives, these men give no thought to the disaster. To wield mighty Qin's power to internally coerce one's own sovereign — no crime exceeds this.

"Wei is a mighty state under heaven; Your Majesty is a worthy king under heaven. Yet now you intend to face west and serve Qin, to be styled an eastern vassal, to build an imperial palace for Qin, to receive Qin's ceremonial cap and sash, and to offer seasonal sacrifices to Qin. Your servant is privately ashamed on Your Majesty's behalf.

"Your servant has heard that King Goujian of Yue, with three thousand battle-weary soldiers, captured Fu Chai at Gansu; and that King Wu, with three thousand soldiers and three hundred leather-covered chariots, subdued the tyrant Zhou at Muye. Was it because their troops were numerous? No — it was because they were truly able to rouse their authority to its fullest.

"Now, your servant has heard that Your Majesty's forces include two hundred thousand warriors, two hundred thousand grey-capped infantry, two hundred thousand shock troops, a hundred thousand labourers and camp-followers, six hundred war chariots, and five thousand cavalry horses. This far surpasses King Goujian of Yue and King Wu. Yet now you heed the counsel of your ministers and intend to submit as Qin's vassal. To serve Qin means you must cede territory as a token of good faith — thus before your armies are even deployed, your state has already been diminished.

"Any minister who counsels serving Qin is a traitor, not a loyal servant. For a subject to carve up his lord's territory in pursuit of foreign alliances, to snatch a moment's advantage with no thought for the future, to ruin the public house to build up his private house, and to wield mighty Qin's power externally to coerce his own sovereign internally and demand the cession of territory — I pray that Your Majesty examine this closely.

"The Book of Zhou says: 'If you do not cut the trickle, the spreading vine — what then? If you do not fell the fine hair, you will need an axe-handle.' If prior deliberations are not settled, great calamity follows — and then what will you do?

"If Your Majesty will truly heed your servant, the six states shall form a vertical alliance, unite their hearts, combine their strength, and act with single purpose — then you shall surely be free from the menace of mighty Qin. Therefore our humble city, the King of Zhao, has sent your servant to present this humble plan and offer a clear covenant. It awaits Your Majesty's command."

The King of Wei said: "I am unworthy and have never before received such enlightened instruction. Now that you, my lord, convey the command of the King of Zhao, I respectfully commit my state to the alliance."

Su Qin then travelled east and addressed King Xuan of Qi:

"Qi has Mount Tai to the south, Langya to the east, the Qing River to the west, and the Bohai Sea to the north — this is what is called a state enclosed by four natural barriers. Qi's territory spans over two thousand li, with several hundred thousand armoured troops and grain piled high as hills.

"The finest soldiers of the three armies and the troops of the five district-families advance like the point of an arrow, fight like a thunderclap, and disperse like wind and rain. Whenever there has been military service, they have never needed to go beyond Mount Tai, cross the Qing River, or traverse the Bohai.

"Within the city of Linzi there are seventy thousand households. By my private estimate, each household has no fewer than three adult males — three times seventy thousand gives two hundred and ten thousand. Without even summoning men from the distant counties, the garrison of Linzi alone already amounts to two hundred and ten thousand soldiers.

"Linzi is exceedingly wealthy and prosperous. Its people all play the yu reed-organ and beat the se zither, strum the qin and strike the zhu, stage cockfights and race dogs, and play liubo and kick balls. On the roads of Linzi, chariot hubs collide and men's shoulders brush against one another. Linked lapels form curtains, raised sleeves form canopies, and flicked sweat falls like rain. Every household is prosperous, every person content, with lofty ambitions and high spirits.

"With Your Majesty's virtue and Qi's might, nothing under heaven can withstand you. Yet now you face west and serve Qin — your servant is privately ashamed on Your Majesty's behalf.

"Moreover, the reason Han and Wei are so deeply afraid of Qin is that they share a direct border with it. Once armies march out and engage, within ten days the issue of victory or defeat, survival or ruin, is decided. If Han and Wei fight and defeat Qin, half their forces are destroyed and they cannot defend their four borders. If they fight and fail to defeat Qin, their states face imminent ruin. This is why Han and Wei would rather submit to Qin lightly than fight Qin in earnest.

"But if Qin were to attack Qi, the situation would be entirely different. It would have to pass through Han and Wei's territory, cross the roads of Wei and Jin, and traverse the narrow defile of Kangfu — where chariots cannot travel side by side and horsemen cannot ride abreast. A hundred men defending the pass could hold off a thousand. Even if Qin wished to penetrate deep into Qi, it would glance behind like a wolf, fearing that Han and Wei would strike at its rear. Thus Qin can only threaten and bluster, posture arrogantly but dare not advance. That Qin cannot harm Qi is perfectly clear.

"To fail to reckon deeply that Qin can do nothing to Qi, and instead wish to face west and serve it — this is a miscalculation by Your Majesty's ministers. If you neither bear the name of Qin's vassal and yet possess the substance of a strong state — for this reason I pray that Your Majesty give the matter some thought."

The King of Qi said: "I am slow-witted, tucked away in a remote corner guarding the seacoast — a state at the end of the road on the eastern frontier. I have never before received such instruction. Now that you, sir, convey the command of the King of Zhao, I respectfully commit my state to the alliance."

Su Qin then travelled southwest and addressed King Wei of Chu:

"Chu is the mightiest state under heaven; Your Majesty is the worthiest king under heaven. To the west lie Qianzhong and Wu Commandery, to the east Xiazhou and Haiyang, to the south Dongting and Cangwu, and to the north the Xing Passes and Xunyang. Your territory spans over five thousand li, with a million armoured troops, a thousand war chariots, ten thousand cavalry horses, and grain reserves for ten years. These are the resources of a hegemon-king.

"With Chu's might and Your Majesty's virtue, nothing under heaven can withstand you. Yet now you intend to face west and serve Qin — if so, then all the feudal lords will likewise face west and pay court beneath the Zhang Terrace.

"Of all the states, the one Qin considers most threatening is Chu. When Chu is strong, Qin is weak; when Qin is strong, Chu is weak — their positions cannot coexist. Therefore, the best strategy for Your Majesty is to form a vertical alliance and isolate Qin.

"If Your Majesty does not join the alliance, Qin will surely raise two armies — one emerging from Wuguan, the other descending on Qianzhong — and then Yan and Ying will tremble.

"Your servant has heard: govern before disorder arrives; act before the situation arises. If you wait until calamity has come to worry about it, then it is already too late. Therefore I pray that Your Majesty deliberate carefully and early.

"If Your Majesty will truly heed your servant, I shall cause the states east of the mountains to present their seasonal tribute, to receive Your Majesty's wise commands, to entrust their altars of soil and grain, to honour your ancestral temples, and to train their soldiers and sharpen their weapons — all at Your Majesty's disposal.

"If Your Majesty will truly adopt your servant's humble plan, then the exquisite music and beautiful women of Han, Wei, Qi, Yan, Zhao, and Wey shall fill your rear palace, and the camels and fine horses of Yan and Dai shall fill your outer stables.

"Therefore: if the vertical alliance succeeds, Chu reigns as king; if the horizontal alliance succeeds, Qin reigns as emperor. To abandon the enterprise of a hegemon-king and instead bear the name of another's servant — your servant privately considers this a course Your Majesty would not choose.

"Qin is a tiger-and-wolf state with the ambition of swallowing All-Under-Heaven. Qin is the common enemy of All-Under-Heaven. The horizontal alliance advocates all seek to carve up the feudal lords' territory and hand it to Qin — this is what is called 'feeding the foe and serving the enemy.'

"For a subject to carve up his lord's territory to forge external ties with the tiger-and-wolf state of mighty Qin, to bring ruin upon All-Under-Heaven, and ultimately when the calamity of Qin arrives, to give no thought to the disaster — to wield mighty Qin's authority externally to coerce one's own sovereign internally and demand the cession of territory — no act of disloyalty and treason exceeds this.

"Therefore: if the vertical alliance is formed, the feudal lords will cede territory to serve Chu; if the horizontal alliance prevails, Chu will cede territory to serve Qin. These two strategies are worlds apart — which of the two will Your Majesty choose? Therefore our humble city, the King of Zhao, has sent your servant to present this humble plan and offer a clear covenant. It awaits Your Majesty's command."

Qin is a tiger-wolf state with ambitions to devour All-Under-Heaven. Qin is the sworn enemy of the world. The Horizontal Alliance advocates all seek to carve up the states' territory to serve Qin — this is what is called nourishing one's enemy and serving one's foe. To be a minister, to cede one's sovereign's land to befriend the tiger-wolf might of Qin, to let Qin ravage the world, and when Qin's menace finally arrives to take no thought of the disaster — to exploit Qin's power externally while coercing one's sovereign internally, demanding cessions of territory — there is no greater treachery and disloyalty than this.

Therefore: if the Vertical Alliance holds, the states will cede territory to serve Chu. If the Horizontal Alliance prevails, Chu will cede territory to serve Qin. These two strategies lead to opposite ends. Which will Your Majesty choose?

Thus our humble state of Zhao has sent me to present this unworthy plan and offer a solemn covenant. The decision rests with Your Majesty's command.

The King of Chu said: "My state borders Qin on the west. Qin harbors designs on Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong. Qin is a tiger-wolf state — one cannot draw close to it. Yet Han and Wei are so beset by Qin's menace that one cannot confide in them deeply; confide in them, and I fear they will betray me to Qin — so that the plan is exposed before it is even launched, and the state is already in danger.

I have calculated that Chu alone cannot prevail against Qin. When I deliberate with my ministers at court, their counsel is not to be relied upon. I lie in bed and cannot rest; I eat and cannot taste the food. My heart sways back and forth like a pennant hanging in the wind, with nowhere to settle.

Now you, sir, wish to unite All-Under-Heaven, rally the states, and preserve those in peril. I respectfully commit my altars of soil and grain to the alliance."

Thereupon the six states joined the Vertical Alliance and combined their strength. Su Qin became Chief of the Alliance Covenant, simultaneously serving as chancellor to all six states.

He traveled north to report to the King of Zhao, and his route took him through Luoyang. His carriages, cavalry, and baggage trains — augmented by the many envoys each state had dispatched to escort him — were so grand that they rivaled a king's procession. When King Xian of Zhou heard of it, he was filled with alarm. He had the roads swept clean and sent officials to welcome Su Qin in the suburbs.

Su Qin's brothers, their wives, and his sister-in-law averted their eyes and dared not look up at him. They prostrated themselves to serve his food. Su Qin laughed and said to his sister-in-law: "Why were you so haughty before, and so humble now?"

His sister-in-law threw herself flat on the ground, pressing her face to the earth, and said: "Because I see that your position is high and your gold is plentiful."

Su Qin sighed deeply: "It is the same person — yet when rich and noble, one's own kin cower in fear; when poor and lowly, they treat one with contempt. How much more so the world at large! Besides, had I owned two qing of farmland outside Luoyang's walls, could I ever have worn the seals of six states' chancellor?"

He then distributed a thousand jin of gold among his clan and friends. When Su Qin had first set out for Yan, he had borrowed a hundred coins from someone as traveling funds. Now, having become wealthy, he repaid the man a hundred jin of gold. He rewarded every person who had ever shown him kindness.

One of his attendants alone had received nothing, and came forward to speak of it. Su Qin said: "I have not forgotten you. When you accompanied me to Yan, you tried again and again to leave me at the Yi River. At that time I was in desperate straits, and so I resented you deeply — that is why I placed you last. But now you too shall receive your share."

Having bound the six states in the Vertical Alliance, Su Qin returned to Zhao. Duke Su of Zhao enfeoffed him as Lord Wuan. The covenant document was then sent to Qin. For fifteen years, Qin's armies did not dare peer beyond Hangu Pass.

Afterward, Qin sent Xishou to deceive Qi and Wei into jointly attacking Zhao, seeking to shatter the alliance covenant. Qi and Wei attacked Zhao, and the King of Zhao reproached Su Qin. Su Qin, alarmed, requested permission to go as envoy to Yan, promising he would assuredly repay Qi's treachery. Once Su Qin left Zhao, the entire alliance dissolved.

King Hui of Qin had given his daughter in marriage to the Crown Prince of Yan. That year, Duke Wen of Yan died and the Crown Prince succeeded him — this was King Yi of Yan. When King Yi had just taken the throne, King Xuan of Qi exploited the mourning period to attack Yan and seized ten cities.

King Yi said to Su Qin: "In the past, sir, you came to Yan and my late father furnished you with resources to visit Zhao, whereupon you bound the six states in the Vertical Alliance. Now Qi has first attacked Zhao and next struck Yan. On your account we are the laughingstock of the world. Can you recover our lost territory?"

Su Qin was deeply ashamed. "Allow me to recover it for Your Majesty," he said.

Su Qin went to see the King of Qi. He bowed twice, then bent down as if offering congratulations and looked up as if offering condolences.

The King of Qi said: "How can congratulations and condolences follow each other so quickly?"

Su Qin said: "I have heard that when a starving man refuses to eat wolfsbane, it is because though it fills the belly, the harm is the same as starving to death. Now Yan may be small and weak, but its prince is the son-in-law of the King of Qin. Your Majesty profits from ten cities but creates a lasting enmity with mighty Qin. To make weak Yan your advance guard while mighty Qin assaults your rear, and thereby draw the elite forces of the world against you — this is of the same kind as eating wolfsbane."

The King of Qi's expression changed with alarm: "Then what should I do?"

Su Qin said: "I have heard that the ancients who were skilled at managing affairs could turn disaster into fortune and convert defeat into success. If Your Majesty will heed my plan, return the ten cities to Yan. Yan will have gained ten cities for nothing and will be delighted. The King of Qin, knowing it was on his account that the cities were returned, will also be delighted. This is what is called casting off enmity and gaining allies as solid as stone. If Yan and Qin both serve Qi, then Your Majesty can issue commands to the world and none will dare disobey. Your Majesty trades empty words to attach Qin and ten cities to gain the whole world. This is the enterprise of a hegemon-king."

The king said: "Excellent." Thereupon he returned the ten cities to Yan.

Someone slandered Su Qin, saying: "He is a treacherous minister who sells out states and shifts allegiances. He will surely cause trouble."

Su Qin was afraid of being punished. When he returned, the King of Yan would not restore him to office. Su Qin sought an audience and said:

"I am a humble man from East Zhou, without the slightest merit. Yet Your Majesty personally received me at the ancestral temple and honored me at court. Now I have driven back Qi's army and recovered ten cities for Your Majesty — this should have drawn us closer. Yet I return and Your Majesty will not give me office. Someone must have used accusations of faithlessness to harm me in Your Majesty's eyes.

"But my faithlessness is Your Majesty's good fortune. I have heard that loyalty and faithfulness serve oneself; bold enterprise serves others. Moreover, when I persuaded the King of Qi, I did not actually deceive him. I abandoned my aged mother in East Zhou — I set aside what served myself to pursue what would serve others.

"Now suppose you had three men: one filial as Zengzi, one incorruptible as Bo Yi, one faithful as Wei Sheng. With these three men serving Your Majesty, how would that be?"

The king said: "That would suffice."

Su Qin said: "One as filial as Zengzi would on principle never spend a single night away from his parents. How could Your Majesty make him walk a thousand li to serve the endangered king of weak Yan? One as incorruptible as Bo Yi refused to inherit the lordship of Guzhu, refused to serve King Wu, refused enfeoffment, and starved to death below Mount Shouyang. With such incorruptibility, how could Your Majesty make him walk a thousand li to undertake bold enterprise against Qi? One as faithful as Wei Sheng made an appointment with a woman beneath a bridge. She did not come. The waters rose. He would not leave. He embraced the pillar and drowned. With such faithfulness, how could Your Majesty make him walk a thousand li to drive back Qi's mighty army?

"I am one who has been punished precisely for being loyal and faithful."

The King of Yan said: "You are simply not loyal or faithful. How could anyone be punished for loyalty and faithfulness?"

Su Qin said: "Not so. I have heard of a man who served as an official far from home. His wife took a lover. When the husband was about to return, the lover was anxious. The wife said: 'Do not worry. I have already prepared poisoned wine for him.' Three days later the husband arrived. The wife ordered a maidservant to bring the poisoned wine. The maid wanted to say the wine was poisoned, but feared the mistress would be driven out. She wanted to say nothing, but feared the master would be killed. So she pretended to stumble and spilled the wine. The master flew into a rage and gave her fifty strokes of the rod.

"By that single stumble and the spilled wine, the maid preserved the master above and the mistress below — yet she did not escape the rod. Where, then, is the principle that loyalty and faithfulness go unpunished? My offense, alas, is of just this kind."

The King of Yan said: "Let the master resume his former office." And he treated Su Qin with even greater generosity.

King Yi's mother — the consort of the late Duke Wen — had a secret affair with Su Qin. The King of Yan knew of it, yet treated Su Qin with even greater favor. Su Qin, fearing execution, persuaded the king: "While I remain in Yan, I cannot make Yan powerful. But if I am in Qi, Yan will surely become powerful." The King of Yan said: "Do as you see fit, sir."

Su Qin then staged a falling-out with Yan and fled to Qi. King Xuan of Qi appointed him as a guest minister.

When King Xuan died and King Min succeeded, Su Qin encouraged King Min to hold lavish funerals to demonstrate filial piety and to build lofty palaces and great parks to display his satisfaction — all with the aim of exhausting and weakening Qi on Yan's behalf.

King Yi of Yan died, and King Kuai succeeded him. In time, many Qi grandees who competed with Su Qin for favor sent someone to assassinate him. Su Qin was stabbed but did not die immediately; mortally wounded, he fled.

The King of Qi sent men to find the assassin but could not. As Su Qin lay dying, he said to the King of Qi: "When I am dead, dismember my body by chariots and parade it through the marketplace, proclaiming: 'Su Qin conspired against Qi on behalf of Yan.' If you do this, my assassin will certainly come forward."

The king did as he said. The murderer did indeed reveal himself, and the King of Qi had him executed.

When Yan heard of it, they said: "How extraordinary — that Qi should avenge Master Su's death!"

After Su Qin's death, his secret activities were fully exposed. When Qi eventually learned the truth, they turned on Yan with furious resentment. Yan was deeply alarmed.

Su Qin's younger brother was named Dai, and Dai's younger brother was Su Li. Having watched their elder brother succeed, both had also taken up the study of persuasion. When Su Qin died, Su Dai sought an audience with the King of Yan, hoping to carry on his brother's work.

He said: "I am a humble man from East Zhou. I heard that Your Majesty's righteousness is most exalted. Slow-witted as I am, I set aside hoe and mattock to present myself to Your Majesty. When I reached Handan, what I saw fell short of what I had heard in East Zhou, and I was privately disappointed. But when I reached the court of Yan and observed Your Majesty's ministers and officials — Your Majesty is truly the wisest king in the world."

The King of Yan said: "What do you mean by 'wise king'?"

Su Dai replied: "I have heard that a wise king is eager to hear of his faults and does not wish to hear of his merits. Allow me to tell Your Majesty your faults. Qi and Zhao are Yan's enemies. Chu and Wei are Yan's allies. Yet now Your Majesty serves your enemies to attack your allies — this does not benefit Yan. Consider this: it is a strategic error, and those who have not informed you of it are not loyal ministers."

The king said: "Qi is indeed my enemy, and I wish to attack it. My only concern is that the state is weak and our strength insufficient. If you can use Yan to destroy Qi, I will entrust the entire state to you."

Su Dai replied: "Among the seven warring states, Yan is the weakest. Fighting alone, it cannot prevail. But whichever state Yan attaches itself to becomes weightier: attach to Chu in the south, and Chu is strengthened; attach to Qin in the west, and Qin is strengthened; attach to Han and Wei in the center, and they are strengthened. And if the state Yan attaches to becomes weightier, that will assuredly make Your Majesty weightier too.

"Now as for Qi: it has a headstrong ruler who acts on his own counsel. He attacked Chu to the south for five years and exhausted his reserves. He fought Qin to the west for three years and wore out his soldiers. He battled Yan to the north, lost three armies, and had two generals captured. Yet with his remaining forces he marched south to conquer great Song — a state of five thousand chariots — and overawed twelve minor lords. His ruler's ambitions grow, but his people's strength is spent. How can such a state last? Moreover, I have heard it said: frequent wars exhaust the people; prolonged campaigns wear out the army."

The King of Yan said: "I hear that Qi has the clear Ji and the muddy Yellow River for its defenses, and the Long Wall and the Great Dike for its ramparts. Is this true?"

Su Dai replied: "When Heaven's timing is against them, what good are the Ji and the Yellow River as defenses? When the people's strength is spent, what good are the Long Wall and the Great Dike as ramparts? In former times, the region west of the Ji was left ungarrisoned — that was to guard against Zhao. North of the Yellow River was left ungarrisoned — that was to guard against Yan. Now all of these garrisons have been deployed elsewhere. The heartland is depleted.

"An arrogant ruler will assuredly covet gain, and the ministers of a doomed state will assuredly be greedy for wealth. If Your Majesty is willing, without shame, to send a royal son or brother as hostage and to lavish pearls, jade, and silks on Qi's courtiers, they will feel indebted to Yan and think lightly of losing Song. Then Qi can be destroyed."

The King of Yan said: "I shall accept your counsel as if it came from Heaven itself."

Yan then sent a prince as hostage to Qi. Su Li used the Yan hostage prince's presence to seek an audience with the King of Qi. The King of Qi, bearing a grudge against Su Qin, wished to imprison Su Li. The Yan hostage prince interceded on his behalf, and Su Li then submitted himself as a minister of Qi.

Yan's chancellor Zizhi had married into the Su family through Su Dai, and he coveted power in Yan. He had Su Dai assigned to attend the Yan hostage prince in Qi.

When Qi sent Su Dai back to report to Yan, King Kuai asked: "Will the King of Qi achieve hegemony?"

Su Dai said: "He cannot."

"Why not?"

"He does not trust his ministers."

At this, King Kuai placed complete trust in Zizhi and eventually abdicated in his favor. Yan fell into chaos. Qi attacked Yan and killed both King Kuai and Zizhi. Yan then enthroned King Zhao.

Su Dai and Su Li, no longer daring to return to Yan, both settled permanently in Qi. Qi treated them well.

Su Dai passed through Wei, and Wei arrested him on Yan's behalf. Qi sent someone to say to the King of Wei:

"Qi proposes to enfeoff Lord Jingyang with Song territory. Qin will certainly refuse — not because Qin would not profit from an alliance with Qi and Song territory, but because Qin does not trust the King of Qi or Master Su. Now if Qi and Wei are at such bitter odds, this proves Qi is not deceiving Qin. If Qin trusts Qi, and Qi and Qin combine, and Lord Jingyang gets Song territory — that is not in Wei's interest. Therefore Your Majesty would do better to release Master Su. Then Qin will suspect Qi and distrust Master Su. If Qi and Qin do not combine, there will be no upheaval in the world, and the conditions for attacking Qi will have taken shape."

Wei thereupon released Su Dai. Su Dai went to Song, where he was well treated.

When Qi attacked Song and Song was in dire straits, Su Dai sent a letter to King Zhao of Yan:

"To rank as a state of ten thousand chariots yet send hostages to Qi — this debases your name and diminishes your authority. To devote the resources of a ten thousand chariot state to helping Qi conquer Song — this exhausts your people and wastes your substance. To destroy Song, devastate Chu's lands north of the Huai, and fatten Qi — this strengthens your enemy and harms your state. These three are all great defeats for a state. Yet Your Majesty has pursued them in order to win Qi's trust. But Qi trusts you no more than before, while its suspicion of Yan grows ever deeper. Your Majesty's strategy has been mistaken.

"If Song's territory and the lands north of the Huai are added to Qi — that makes a state as strong as a state of ten thousand chariots, and Qi absorbs it: that is one additional Qi. If the Northern Yi territories of seven hundred li, plus Lu and Wei, are added — another state as strong as ten thousand chariots, and Qi absorbs that too: that is two additional Qis. A single Qi is already so powerful that Yan looks over its shoulder like a wolf and can barely hold its ground. Now face Yan with three Qis, and the disaster will be immense.

"Nevertheless, when the wise undertake affairs, they turn disaster into fortune and convert defeat into success. Qi's purple dye is made from ruined white silk, yet it sells for ten times the price. King Goujian of Yue was driven to refuge on Mount Kuaiji, yet he went on to destroy mighty Wu and achieve hegemony over the world. These are all cases of turning disaster to fortune and converting defeat to success.

"If Your Majesty now wishes to turn disaster into fortune and convert defeat into success, the best course is to goad Qi into claiming hegemony and to exalt it — send envoys to make a covenant at the Zhou court, burn Qin's tally-sticks, and declare: 'The paramount strategy is to destroy Qin; the next best is to keep Qin permanently as a guest-vassal.' Qin, held in subordination and threatened with destruction, will be deeply alarmed. For five generations Qin has attacked the states; now to be placed beneath Qi — the King of Qin, if he could only bring Qi low, would not hesitate to stake his entire state on it.

"Why does Your Majesty not send a skilled persuader to say to the King of Qin: 'Yan and Zhao helped destroy Song to fatten Qi and submitted to Qi's leadership, not because it profits them, but because they do not trust the King of Qin. Why does Your Majesty not send trusted men to receive Yan and Zhao? Let Lord Jingyang and Lord Gaoling go first to Yan and Zhao. If Qin acts in good faith, they may serve as hostages, and then Yan and Zhao will trust Qin. Qin shall be the Western Emperor, Yan the Northern Emperor, Zhao the Central Emperor. Establish three emperors to command the world. If Han and Wei do not obey, Qin attacks them. If Qi does not obey, Yan and Zhao attack it. Who in the world would dare refuse? Once the world submits, drive Han and Wei to attack Qi, declaring: "Song's territory must be returned; Chu's lands north of the Huai must be given back." Returning Song and the Huai-north lands is in Yan and Zhao's interest. Establishing three emperors is Yan and Zhao's wish. Gaining real profit and honored status — Yan and Zhao will discard Qi as easily as shaking off a fledgling's down.

"'If Qin does not win over Yan and Zhao, Qi's hegemony will certainly be established. If the states rally behind Qi and Your Majesty does not follow, your state will be attacked. If you do follow, your name will be humbled. Win over Yan and Zhao, and your state is secure and your name exalted. Fail to win them, and your state is imperiled and your name debased. To forsake security and honor for peril and disgrace — no wise man would do this.'

"When the King of Qin hears such words, they will pierce his heart. Why does Your Majesty not send a skilled persuader with exactly these arguments? Qin will certainly accept, and Qi will certainly be attacked.

"To win Qin is to gain a powerful ally. To attack Qi is to pursue Yan's true interest. To honor a powerful alliance and pursue one's true interest — this is the enterprise of a sage-king."

King Zhao of Yan approved the letter and said: "My predecessors were once indebted to the Su family. During the Zizhi disaster the Su brothers left Yan. But if Yan wishes to take vengeance on Qi, none but the Su family can accomplish it."

He summoned Su Dai, treated him generously once more, and plotted with him to attack Qi. In the end, Qi was destroyed and King Min fled.

Some time later, Qin summoned the King of Yan. The king wished to go. Su Dai counseled him:

"Chu acquired Zhi and lost its state. Qi acquired Song and lost its state. Chu and Qi could not keep Zhi and Song while serving Qin — why? Because those who have achieved successes become Qin's deepest enemies. Qin conquers the world not through righteousness but through violence. And Qin proclaims its violence openly to the world.

"To Chu it declared: 'Our armored troops from Shu will board boats, float down the Min, ride the summer floods down the Yangtze, and reach Ying in five days. Our Hanzhong troops will board boats from Ba, ride the summer floods down the Han, and reach Wuzhu in four days. I will mass troops at Wan, march east through Sui — your wise men will not have time to plan, your brave men will not have time to grow angry. I will be like an archer shooting a falcon. Does Your Majesty really intend to wait for the whole world to attack Hangu Pass? How remote a hope!' For this reason the King of Chu served Qin for seventeen years.

"To Han, Qin declared bluntly: 'If I launch from Shaoqu, in one day I sever the Taihang range. If I launch from Yiyang and strike Pingyang, in two days all will submit. If I leave the two Zhous and strike Zheng, in five days the state is taken.' Han believed it, and served Qin.

"To Wei, Qin declared bluntly: 'I take Anyi and seal Nüji, and Han's Taiyuan is cut off. I descend from Zhi, pass through Nanyang, seal Ji, and encircle the two Zhous. I ride the summer floods in light boats, strong crossbows in front, halberds behind. If I breach the Xingkou dike, Wei loses Daliang. If I breach the Baima dike, Wei loses Waihuang and Jiyang. If I breach the Suxu dike, Wei loses Xu and Dunqiu. By land I strike Henei; by water I drown Daliang.' Wei believed it, and served Qin.

"When Qin wished to attack Anyi but feared Qi would rescue it, it dangled Song before Qi, saying: 'The King of Song is lawless — he carved a wooden figure of me and shot arrows at its face. My territory is too distant and my troops too far away to attack him. If Your Majesty can destroy Song and take it, I shall count it as if I gained it myself.' Once Qin had taken Anyi and sealed Nüji, it turned around and made Qi's conquest of Song into Qi's crime.

"When Qin wished to attack Han but feared the world would rescue it, it offered Qi up to the world, saying: 'The King of Qi has made compacts with me four times and cheated me four times, and three times tried to lead the world against me. It is Qi or Qin — one must perish.' Once Qin had gained Yiyang and Shaoqu and taken Lin and Shi, it made Qi's destruction into the world's crime.

"When Qin wished to attack Wei but needed to placate Chu, it offered Nanyang to Chu, saying: 'I have already broken with Han. I will devastate Junling and seal the Mengè pass — whatever benefits Chu, I shall count as my own.' Wei abandoned its allies and joined Qin. Qin then made the sealing of Mengè into Chu's crime.

"When its army was bogged down at Linzhong, Qin courted Yan and Zhao — offering Jiaodong to Yan and Jixi to Zhao. Once Qin made peace with Wei and reached Prince Yan, it sent Xishou to attack Zhao.

"When its army was bloodied at Qiaoshi and defeated at Yangma, Qin courted Wei — offering Ye and Cai to Wei. Once Qin made peace with Zhao, it coerced Wei and refused to cede the land. In difficulty, Qin sends the Queen Dowager's brother, the Marquis of Rang, to make peace. In victory, it cheats both uncle and mother alike.

"To those sent to Yan it says 'with Jiaodong'; to Zhao, 'with Jixi'; to Wei, 'with Ye and Cai'; to Chu, 'with the Mengè pass'; to Qi, 'with Song.' Qin's words circle round and round like a ring; its armies strike like stabbing a gnat. Neither mother can restrain it nor uncle can bind it.

"The battle of Longjia, the battle of Anmen, the battle of Fengling, the battle of Gaoshang, the battle of Zhaozhuang — the people of the Three Jin that Qin has slaughtered number in the millions. Those who survive today are all orphans of Qin's killing. The lands beyond the West River, the territory of Shangluo, the disaster that struck the Three Rivers region and the old Jin state — half of the Three Jin is gone. Qin's calamity is this vast. Yet those in Yan and Zhao who favor Qin all compete to urge their rulers to serve Qin. This is my gravest concern."

King Zhao of Yan did not go. Su Dai was once again held in high regard in Yan.

Yan dispatched envoys to bind the states in a Vertical Alliance as in Su Qin's time. Some joined and some did not, but from this time onward the world looked to the Su family as the founders of the alliance covenant tradition. Both Su Dai and Su Li died of natural causes, their names renowned among the states.

The Grand Historian comments:

The three Su brothers all achieved fame by persuading the states, and their art excelled in strategic maneuvering. Yet Su Qin was killed through a counter-intelligence operation, and the whole world mocked him. People were ashamed to study his methods.

However, much that the world attributes to Su Qin is inconsistent. Whenever events from other times resembled his, they were all attached to Su Qin's name.

That Su Qin rose from a common alleyway to unite six states in the Vertical Alliance — in this, his intelligence surpassed other men. I have therefore set out his deeds and arranged them in chronological order, so that he should not bear an evil reputation alone.

The youngest son, a man of Zhou, Studied under Guigu. When his art of reading men was perfected, He crouched over the Yin Fu and read. He united the Vertical, shattered the Horizontal — Six seals hung from his sash. The Son of Heaven swept the road; His own family groveled in the dust. Worthy were Dai and Li, Who carried on the glory of their clan.