張儀列傳

Zhang Yi was a native of Wei. In his youth he studied under Master Guigu together with Su Qin. Su Qin considered himself inferior to Zhang Yi in ability.

After completing his studies, Zhang Yi traveled among the feudal lords seeking employment as a persuader. Once he was drinking with the Prime Minister of Chu. Afterward the minister's jade disc went missing, and the household suspected Zhang Yi: "Yi is poor and has no scruples — he must have stolen the minister's disc." They seized Zhang Yi and flogged him several hundred strokes. He refused to confess, and they released him. His wife said: "Enough! If you had never studied persuasion, how would you have come to this humiliation?" Zhang Yi said to his wife: "Look at my tongue — is it still there?" His wife laughed and said: "It is still there." Yi said: "That is all that matters."

Su Qin had already persuaded the King of Zhao, obtained the position of chief minister, and forged the Vertical Alliance. Yet he feared that Qin would attack the allied states, breaking the pact and leaving him disgraced. He could think of no one capable of wielding power in Qin on his behalf, so he sent an agent to subtly provoke Zhang Yi: "You and Su Qin were once close friends. Now Su Qin holds the road to power — why not go to him and seek his help in advancing your career?" Zhang Yi accordingly went to Zhao and requested an audience with Su Qin. But Su Qin instructed his gatekeepers to deny him entry, and kept him waiting for several days. When he finally received him, Su Qin seated him below the hall and served him the food of servants and concubines. He berated him repeatedly: "With your talents, you have let yourself sink to such degradation. I could certainly put in a word and make you rich and honored, but you are not worth helping." Then he dismissed him. Zhang Yi had come expecting the warmth of an old friend and hoping for assistance; instead he was humiliated. In his fury he considered which state to serve, concluded that only Qin had the power to make Zhao suffer, and entered Qin.

Afterward Su Qin told his retainer: "Zhang Yi is the most capable man in the world — I am probably not his equal. I was fortunate to be employed first, but the only person who can wield the levers of Qin is Zhang Yi. Yet he is poor and has no means to advance. I feared he would settle for some petty advantage and never fulfill his potential, so I summoned and insulted him to fire his ambition. I want you to secretly support him." Su Qin then spoke to the King of Zhao, who provided gold, silk, carriages, and horses. An agent was sent to follow Zhang Yi covertly, to lodge at the same inns, to gradually befriend him, and to supply him with carriages, horses, and money for whatever he needed — all without revealing who was behind it. Zhang Yi was thus able to gain an audience with King Hui of Qin. The king appointed him as guest minister and consulted him on campaigns against the other states.

Su Qin's retainer then took his leave. Zhang Yi said: "It is thanks to you that I have risen. I was about to repay your kindness — why are you leaving?" The retainer said: "It was not I who understood you, sir. It was Lord Su. Lord Su feared that Qin would attack Zhao and break the Vertical Alliance. He believed that no one but you could wield power in Qin, so he deliberately provoked your anger and sent me to secretly provide you with funds. It was all Lord Su's design. Now that you are established, I beg leave to return and report." Zhang Yi sighed: "Alas! This was all within my field of expertise and yet I did not see it. I am clearly not Su Qin's equal in insight! Moreover, I am newly appointed — how could I plot against Zhao? Convey my thanks to Lord Su. As long as Lord Su lives, I would not dare make any move. With Su Qin in place, how could I possibly act against him?"

Once Zhang Yi became Prime Minister of Qin, he sent a formal letter to the Prime Minister of Chu declaring: "When I drank with you, I did not steal your disc, yet you flogged me. You had best guard your state well, for now I intend to steal your cities!"

Ju and Shu were at war with each other, and both sent urgent appeals to Qin for help. King Hui of Qin wished to send troops to attack Shu but considered the road dangerously narrow and difficult. Meanwhile Han had invaded Qin's territory. The king wanted to attack Han first and Shu afterward, but feared it would go badly. He wanted to attack Shu first but feared Han would strike while Qin was exhausted. He hesitated, unable to decide. Sima Cuo debated Zhang Yi before the king. Sima Cuo favored attacking Shu; Zhang Yi said: "It would be better to attack Han." The king said: "Let me hear your argument."

Zhang Yi said: "Befriend Wei and win over Chu. March troops down the Three Rivers region. Block the mouth of Shigu Pass, hold the road at Tunliu. Have Wei sever Nanyang, have Chu menace Nanzheng. Then Qin attacks Xincheng and Yiyang, advancing to the outskirts of the Two Zhous. Denounce the Zhou king's offenses and seize territory from Chu and Wei. Zhou, knowing it cannot defend itself, will surrender the Nine Cauldrons and all its treasures. Hold the Nine Cauldrons, control the maps and registers, command the feudal lords in the Son of Heaven's name — none under heaven would dare disobey. This is the path to royal supremacy. Now Shu is a remote western land, no better than the barbarian tribes. Exhausting our troops there will not win us a reputation; gaining its territory will not profit us. I have heard it said: those who seek fame compete at court; those who seek profit compete in the marketplace. The Three Rivers and the Zhou royal domain are the court and marketplace of the world, yet Your Majesty refuses to compete there and instead contends with barbarians. This is far indeed from the path to kingship."

Sima Cuo said: "Not so. I have heard that he who would enrich his state must first expand its territory; he who would strengthen his army must first enrich his people; he who would become king must first extend his virtue. When these three resources are in place, kingship follows naturally. At present Your Majesty's territory is small and the people are poor. Therefore I propose we begin with what is easy. Shu is a remote western land, the chief of the barbarian tribes, and is in the throes of tyrannical misrule. For Qin to attack it would be like sending wolves after a flock of sheep. Taking its land will expand the state; seizing its wealth will enrich the people and supply the army. We can subdue it without heavy casualties. To conquer one state without the world calling us brutal, to profit from the entire west without the world calling us greedy — this is to gain both substance and reputation in a single stroke, with the added glory of suppressing tyranny and stopping chaos. But if we attack Han and coerce the Son of Heaven, we earn an evil name without certain gain. We bear the charge of injustice and attack what all the world would defend — that is dangerous. Let me explain: Zhou is the ancestral house of all under heaven; Qi is Han's ally. If Zhou sees the Nine Cauldrons slipping away and Han sees it will lose the Three Rivers, both states will unite their strength and conspire together, seeking aid from Qi and Zhao, seeking mediation from Chu and Wei. They will offer the cauldrons to Chu and land to Wei, and Your Majesty will be unable to prevent it. This is what I call dangerous. Better to attack Shu."

King Hui said: "Excellent. I will follow your counsel." He raised an army and attacked Shu. In ten months he took it. He pacified Shu, demoted the King of Shu to the rank of marquis, and appointed Chen Zhuang as chancellor of Shu. Once Shu belonged to Qin, Qin grew ever stronger and wealthier, and looked down upon the other feudal lords.

In the tenth year of King Hui of Qin, he dispatched Prince Hua and Zhang Yi to besiege Puyang, which surrendered. Zhang Yi then persuaded Qin to return the city to Wei and to send Prince Yao as a hostage to Wei. He told the King of Wei: "The King of Qin has treated Wei with exceptional generosity. Wei must not be discourteous in return." Wei accordingly ceded Shangjun and Shaoliang to Qin in gratitude. King Hui then appointed Zhang Yi as Prime Minister and renamed Shaoliang to Xiayang.

Zhang Yi served as Prime Minister for four years, during which King Hui formally adopted the title of King. After another year, Zhang Yi served as a Qin general and captured Shan. He built fortifications in Shangjun.

Two years later, he was sent to meet with the prime ministers of Qi and Chu at Niesang. On his return east he was relieved as Prime Minister of Qin and appointed Prime Minister of Wei on Qin's behalf, hoping that if Wei submitted to Qin first, the other states would follow suit. But the King of Wei refused to listen. The King of Qin was furious and attacked, seizing Wei's cities of Quwo and Pingzhou. He secretly lavished even greater favors on Zhang Yi. Zhang Yi was ashamed at having nothing to show for his efforts. He remained in Wei for four years until King Xiang of Wei died and King Ai succeeded him. Zhang Yi again tried to persuade King Ai, but the king would not listen. Zhang Yi then secretly arranged for Qin to attack Wei. Wei fought Qin and was defeated.

The following year, Qi again defeated Wei at Guanjin. Qin once more planned to attack Wei. It first routed Han's army under Shen Cha, beheading eighty thousand — the feudal lords were terrified. Zhang Yi then addressed the King of Wei:

"Wei's territory does not reach a thousand li in any direction, and its soldiers number no more than three hundred thousand. The land is flat on all sides, with roads converging from every direction and no great mountains or rivers for defense. From Zheng to the capital at Daliang is just over two hundred li — chariots and men can arrive without exertion. To the south Wei borders Chu, to the west Han, to the north Zhao, to the east Qi. No fewer than a hundred thousand soldiers are needed just to garrison the frontiers and guard the watchtowers. Wei's terrain makes it a natural battlefield. If Wei allies with Chu but not Qi, then Qi attacks from the east. If it allies with Qi but not Zhao, then Zhao attacks from the north. If it does not come to terms with Han, then Han attacks from the west. If it is not close to Chu, then Chu attacks from the south. This is what is called the path to being torn apart.

"The feudal lords joined the Vertical Alliance supposedly to secure their altars of state, honor their rulers, strengthen their armies, and win renown. The alliance unified the world, bound the states as brothers, slaughtered a white horse as oath on the banks of the Huan River to seal their commitment. Yet even true brothers of the same parents quarrel over money — to rely on the fraudulent and shifting remnants of Su Qin's schemes is clearly doomed to fail.

"If Your Majesty does not serve Qin, Qin will send troops across the Yellow River, seize Juan, Yan, and Suanzao, coerce Wey and take Yangjin. Then Zhao will not dare come south. If Zhao does not come south, Wei cannot look north. If Wei cannot look north, the route of the Vertical Alliance is severed. Once that route is severed, Your Majesty's state cannot escape danger. Qin will break Han and then attack Wei. Han, cowed by Qin, will become one with it — and Wei's destruction can be expected immediately. This is what I fear on Your Majesty's behalf.

"For Your Majesty, nothing is better than serving Qin. If you serve Qin, then Chu and Han will not dare move. Free from the threat of Chu and Han, Your Majesty may sleep with your pillow raised high, and the state will have nothing to worry about.

"Moreover, the state Qin most wishes to weaken is Chu, and no state can weaken Chu better than Wei. Chu may have a reputation for wealth and size, but it is hollow within. Its troops, though numerous, are quick to flee and easily routed — they cannot hold in sustained combat. Commit all of Wei's forces to march south against Chu, and victory is certain. Carve up Chu to expand Wei; diminish Chu to please Qin. Deflect disaster and secure the state — this is the wise course. If Your Majesty does not heed me, Qin will send its armored warriors east — and then even if you wished to serve Qin, it will be too late.

"The advocates of the Vertical Alliance are full of bold rhetoric but offer little that can be trusted. They persuade one lord and win themselves a fief; thus every itinerant talker in the world seizes his wrist, glares, and gnashes his teeth day and night, proclaiming the advantages of the Vertical Alliance to sway rulers. When a ruler admires their eloquence and is led along by their arguments, how can he avoid being dazzled?

"I have heard it said: accumulated feathers can sink a boat; many light loads can break an axle; the words of many mouths can melt metal; accumulated slander can dissolve bone. I therefore beg Your Majesty to deliberate carefully — and grant me leave to depart from Wei."

King Ai thereupon abandoned the Vertical Alliance and through Zhang Yi sued for peace with Qin. Zhang Yi returned and was restored as Prime Minister of Qin. Three years later, Wei again broke with Qin and rejoined the Vertical Alliance. Qin attacked Wei and took Quwo. The following year, Wei again submitted to Qin.

Qin wished to attack Qi, but Qi and Chu had formed a Vertical Alliance. Zhang Yi therefore went to serve as Prime Minister of Chu. When King Huai of Chu heard Zhang Yi was coming, he vacated the finest guesthouse and personally saw to his lodging, saying: "This is a poor and backward state — what instruction do you have for us?"

Zhang Yi addressed the King of Chu: "If Your Majesty will truly heed me, close your borders and sever your alliance with Qi, I will present you with six hundred li of the Shangyu region. I will arrange for a Qin princess to serve Your Majesty as a humble consort. Qin and Chu will exchange brides and grooms and be brother states forever. This weakens Qi to the north and benefits Qin to the west — no plan could be more advantageous."

The King of Chu was delighted and agreed. All his ministers congratulated him. Only Chen Zhen offered condolences. The king said angrily: "Without raising a single soldier I have gained six hundred li of land. All my ministers congratulate me, yet you alone offer condolences — why?" Chen Zhen replied: "Not so. As I see it, the Shangyu land cannot be obtained, and Qi and Qin will unite. Once Qi and Qin unite, disaster will certainly follow." The king said: "Can you explain?" Chen Zhen replied: "The reason Qin values Chu is that Chu has Qi as an ally. If you close your borders and sever ties with Qi, Chu stands alone. Why would Qin covet a gift of six hundred li of land for an isolated state? When Zhang Yi reaches Qin, he will certainly betray Your Majesty. You will have severed your ties with Qi to the north and created an enemy in Qin to the west, and the armies of both states will surely come. The best plan is to secretly maintain ties with Qi while publicly severing the alliance, and send an envoy to follow Zhang Yi. If they give us the land, it is not too late to break with Qi; if they do not, we keep our secret understanding with Qi." The King of Chu said: "I want Master Chen to shut his mouth and say no more while I wait to receive my land." He then bestowed the seal of Prime Minister on Zhang Yi and rewarded him lavishly. He closed his borders, severed relations with Qi, and sent a general to accompany Zhang Yi.

When Zhang Yi reached Qin, he pretended to fall from his carriage and injure himself, and did not attend court for three months. The King of Chu heard this and said: "Is it because Zhang Yi thinks I have not broken sufficiently with Qi?" He sent warriors to Song and, borrowing Song's credentials, sent them north to insult the King of Qi. The King of Qi was furious and swallowed his pride to ally with Qin. Once the Qin-Qi alliance was sealed, Zhang Yi appeared at court and told the Chu envoy: "I have a personal fief of six li that I wish to present to His Majesty's attendants." The Chu envoy said: "I was instructed by my king regarding six hundred li of the Shangyu region. I have not heard of six li." He returned and reported to the King of Chu. The king was enraged and raised troops to attack Qin.

Chen Zhen said: "May I be permitted to speak? Rather than attack, it would be better to cede territory to bribe Qin, then join forces with Qin to attack Qi. What we lose in land to Qin we recover from Qi, and the state can still be preserved." The King of Chu would not listen. He raised an army and sent General Qu Gai to strike Qin. Qin and Qi attacked Chu together, beheading eighty thousand troops and killing Qu Gai. They then seized Danyang and the Hanzhong region. Chu raised yet more troops and raided Qin, reaching Lantian, where a great battle was fought. Chu suffered a devastating defeat, and was forced to cede two cities to make peace with Qin.

Qin pressured Chu, demanding the Qianzhong region and offering to exchange territory outside Wuguan Pass for it. The King of Chu said: "I do not wish to exchange territory. I wish to have Zhang Yi — and for him I will give up the Qianzhong region." The King of Qin wanted to send Zhang Yi but could not bring himself to say so. Zhang Yi volunteered to go. King Hui said: "The King of Chu is furious that you cheated him over the Shangyu land. He intends to destroy you." Zhang Yi replied: "Qin is strong and Chu is weak. I am on good terms with Jin Shang, who has the ear of the queen consort Lady Zheng Xiu — and whatever Zheng Xiu says is obeyed. Moreover, I go bearing Your Majesty's credentials as an official envoy; Chu would not dare execute me. And even if they did execute me and Qin thereby gained the Qianzhong region, that would be my highest wish."

He went to Chu. When he arrived, King Huai immediately imprisoned him and prepared to have him killed. Jin Shang said to Zheng Xiu: "Do you realize that you are about to lose your standing with the king?" Zheng Xiu said: "What do you mean?" Jin Shang said: "The King of Qin loves Zhang Yi dearly and does not wish to lose him. He is now preparing to offer six counties of the Shangyong region to Chu as ransom, along with beautiful women to be presented to the Chu court and the finest singers from the Qin palace as their attendants. The King of Chu values territory and respects Qin — the Qin women will certainly be favored, and Your Ladyship will be cast aside. Better to speak up and have Zhang Yi released."

Zheng Xiu thereupon pleaded with King Huai day and night: "Every minister serves the interests of his own lord. The territory has not yet entered Qin, yet Qin has sent Zhang Yi — this shows the highest respect for Your Majesty. If Your Majesty kills Zhang Yi without proper cause, Qin will be furious and attack Chu. I beg that we, mother and child, be allowed to move south of the Yangtze, so as not to be made fish and meat by Qin." King Huai reconsidered, pardoned Zhang Yi, and treated him with the same lavish courtesy as before.

Zhang Yi, once released from prison but not yet departed, heard that Su Qin had died. He then addressed the King of Chu:

"Qin's territory covers half the world. Its army can match any four states combined. It is shielded by mountain passes and girded by the Yellow River, with barriers on all four sides for defense. It has over a million elite warriors, a thousand war chariots, ten thousand cavalry, and grain heaped like hills. Its laws are clear. Its soldiers embrace danger and welcome death. Its ruler is enlightened and strict; its generals are wise and fierce. Even without deploying a single soldier, Qin could roll up the strategic heights of Mount Chang and snap the spine of the world. Any state that is last to submit will be first to perish. The Vertical Alliance is no different from driving a flock of sheep to attack a fierce tiger — the outcome of tiger against sheep is obvious. If Your Majesty sides with the sheep rather than the tiger, I venture to say your strategy is mistaken.

"Among all the powerful states under heaven, there is either Qin or Chu — if not Qin then Chu. When these two contend, they cannot both survive. If Your Majesty does not ally with Qin, Qin will send armored troops to seize Yiyang, cutting off Han's northern territories. It will descend on Hedong and take Chenggao. Han will be forced to submit; Wei will bend with the wind. Qin will attack Chu's west while Han and Wei attack its north — how can the altars of state avoid danger?

"The Vertical Alliance gathers the weak to attack the strongest, fights without assessing the enemy, and raises armies despite national poverty — this is the art of ruin. I have heard: if your troops are inferior, do not provoke battle; if your grain is inferior, do not attempt a war of attrition. The alliance advocates dress up specious arguments, inflate their rulers' dignity, speak of advantages but never of risks, and when Qin's wrath finally falls, it is too late to act. I beg Your Majesty to consider carefully.

"Qin has Ba and Shu in the west. Great ships laden with grain can set out from Mount Wen, float down the Yangtze, and reach Chu in over three thousand li. Pontoon boats carrying fifty soldiers each with three months' provisions float downstream covering over three hundred li per day. Though the distance is great, it costs no effort of oxen or horses. In less than ten days the fleet reaches Hangan Pass. Once Hangan Pass is alarmed, every city from the border eastward will have to defend itself — Qianzhong and Wu Commandery will no longer be yours. If Qin also sends its army out through Wuguan Pass to attack southward, your northern territories are severed. Qin's forces can threaten Chu within three months, but the allied states' relief would take half a year — the timing is irreconcilable. To count on the rescue of weak states while forgetting the peril from mighty Qin — this is what I fear for Your Majesty.

"Your Majesty once fought the men of Wu — five battles, three victories — yet your soldiers were exhausted. You held only Xincheng in a partial defense, and the surviving people suffered bitterly. I have heard that great achievements breed easy danger, and when the people are exhausted they resent their ruler. To rest on such precarious accomplishments while defying mighty Qin — I fear for Your Majesty.

"The reason Qin has not marched out of Hangu Pass in fifteen years to attack Qi and Zhao is that it secretly harbors the ambition to unite the world. Chu once provoked Qin and fought at Hanzhong; Chu lost, over seventy nobles holding the jade tablet were killed, and Hanzhong was lost. The King of Chu in his fury raised troops to raid Qin, and they fought at Lantian. This is what is called two tigers mauling each other. When Qin and Chu exhaust each other, Han and Wei, still intact, move in from behind — no strategy could be more dangerous. I beg Your Majesty to consider carefully.

"If Qin sends troops to attack Wey and Yangjin, it will command the world's attention. Your Majesty should then commit all your forces to attack Song — in a few months Song can be taken. Having taken Song, march east, and the twelve lords of the Si River region will all be yours.

"As for Su Qin, the one who used oaths of trust to bind the Vertical Alliance — he was enfeoffed as Lord Wuan and made Prime Minister of Yan. He secretly plotted with the King of Yan to destroy Qi and divide its territory. He then feigned a crime, fled to Qi, and the King of Qi accepted him and made him prime minister. After two years the plot was discovered. The King of Qi, in a fury, had Su Qin torn apart by chariots in the marketplace. To rely on one fraudulent Su Qin to manage the whole world and unify the feudal lords is clearly impossible.

"Qin and Chu share a common border — they are natural allies by geography. If Your Majesty will truly heed me, I will arrange for the Qin Crown Prince to be sent as hostage to Chu and the Chu Crown Prince as hostage to Qin. I will arrange a Qin princess as Your Majesty's consort and present a city of ten thousand households as her dowry estate. We shall be brother states forever, with no war between us for all time. I believe no plan could be more advantageous."

The King of Chu, having recovered Zhang Yi and being reluctant to give up the Qianzhong region to Qin, was inclined to agree. Qu Yuan said: "Previously Your Majesty was deceived by Zhang Yi. When Zhang Yi arrived, I believed Your Majesty should boil him alive. Even if you cannot bear to kill him, you must not listen to his wicked counsel." King Huai said: "If I agree with Zhang Yi, I keep Qianzhong — that is a fine profit. To go back on the deal afterward would be wrong." So he ultimately agreed with Zhang Yi and allied with Qin.

Zhang Yi left Chu and proceeded to Han, where he addressed the King of Han:

"Han's territory is rugged and mountainous. Its crops are nothing but beans and wheat. The people's diet consists mostly of bean-leaf broth. One year without harvest and they cannot even afford chaff. The territory does not exceed nine hundred li, and there are no grain reserves for two years. I estimate Your Majesty's total forces at no more than three hundred thousand, and that includes camp servants and supply bearers. After deducting frontier garrisons and pass defenders, the available troops are no more than two hundred thousand.

"Qin has over a million armored soldiers, a thousand war chariots, ten thousand cavalry. Its elite warriors — bare-headed, halberds leveled, charging with fury — are beyond counting. Qin's horses are superb; its war gear is vast. Horses that leap forward and kick back, covering three fathoms between hoofbeats, are beyond number. The soldiers east of the mountains put on armor and helmets to go into battle; Qin's men throw off their armor and charge bare-chested at the enemy, carrying severed heads in their left hands and live captives under their right arms. Qin's soldiers compared to the eastern states' soldiers are like Meng Ben against a coward; in sheer force, like Wu Huo against an infant. To send warriors of Meng Ben and Wu Huo's caliber against recalcitrant weak states is no different from suspending a thousand-jun weight over a bird's egg — there can be no chance of survival.

"Your ministers and allies fail to consider the scarcity of your territory and instead listen to the sweet words of the alliance advocates, who conspire to embellish each other's claims, all declaring: 'Follow my plan and you can dominate the world.' To ignore the long-term interests of the state and listen to arguments of the moment — no greater error can mislead a ruler.

"If Your Majesty does not serve Qin, Qin will send its army to seize Yiyang, sever Han's northern territories, and take Chenggao and Xingyang to the east. Then the Hongtai Palace and the Sanglin Park will no longer be yours. Once Chenggao is blocked and the northern territory cut off, your state is split in two. Serve Qin first and you are safe; refuse to serve Qin and you face ruin. To invite disaster and hope for good fortune, to plan shallowly and breed deep resentment, to defy Qin and follow Chu — even if you wished to avoid destruction, it would be impossible.

"Therefore, for Your Majesty's sake, nothing is better than aligning with Qin. What Qin most desires is to weaken Chu, and no state can weaken Chu better than Han. Not because Han is stronger than Chu, but because your geographical position makes it so. If Your Majesty faces west, serves Qin, and attacks Chu, the King of Qin will be delighted. Attack Chu to gain its territory, deflect disaster and please Qin — no plan could be more advantageous."

The King of Han accepted Zhang Yi's proposal. Zhang Yi returned to report, and King Hui of Qin enfeoffed him with five towns and gave him the title Lord Wuxin.

Zhang Yi was sent east to address King Min of Qi:

"No state under heaven is more powerful than Qi. Your great ministers and noble elders are numerous, wealthy, and contented. Yet those who counsel Your Majesty all offer arguments for the moment without considering long-term interests. The alliance advocates tell Your Majesty: 'Qi has mighty Zhao to the west and Han and Wei to the south. Qi is a state backed by the sea, with vast territory, a large population, a strong army, and brave soldiers. Even a hundred Qins could do nothing to Qi.' Your Majesty approves their rhetoric without examining the reality.

"The alliance advocates form cliques and factions, all insisting the Vertical Alliance is sound. But I have heard this: Qi and Lu fought three battles and Lu won all three — yet national ruin followed close behind. Though Lu had the name of victory, it had the reality of destruction. Why? Because Qi was large and Lu was small. Today Qin stands to Qi as Qi once stood to Lu.

"Qin and Zhao fought on the banks of the Zhang River. They fought twice and Zhao won twice. They fought again below Fanwu. Two more battles, two more Zhao victories. Yet after those four victories, Zhao had lost tens of thousands of soldiers and Handan barely survived. Though Zhao had the name of victory, the state was already ruined. Why? Because Qin is strong and Zhao is weak.

"Now Qin and Chu have exchanged brides and become brother states. Han has offered Yiyang. Wei has yielded the territory beyond the Yellow River. Zhao has attended court at Mianchi and ceded Hejian to serve Qin. If Your Majesty does not serve Qin, Qin will drive Han and Wei to attack Qi's southern territories and send all of Zhao's forces across the Clear River, aimed at Boguan Pass — then Linzi and Jimo will no longer be yours. Once the state is under attack, even if you wished to serve Qin, it will be too late. I beg Your Majesty to consider carefully."

The King of Qi said: "Qi is a poor and isolated land, hidden away on the eastern sea. I have never had the benefit of hearing about the long-term interests of the state." He agreed to Zhang Yi's proposal.

Zhang Yi departed and went west to address the King of Zhao:

"The King of our humble Qin has sent me, his envoy, to present a plan to Your Majesty. Your Majesty led the states of the world to hold Qin in check, and for fifteen years Qin's soldiers dared not march out of Hangu Pass. Your Majesty's authority held sway over all the lands east of the mountains. Our humble state cowered in fear — repairing our armor, sharpening our weapons, decorating our chariots, drilling in riding and archery, working the fields and storing grain, guarding within our four borders, dwelling in anxiety, not daring to stir. We waited only for Your Majesty to find fault with us.

"Yet now Qin has, by its own strength, taken Ba and Shu, annexed Hanzhong, enveloped the Two Zhous, removed the Nine Cauldrons, and holds the ford at Baima. Though Qin is remote, it has nursed its indignation for a long time. Now Qin has battle-worn armor and hardened troops encamped at Mianchi, prepared to cross the Yellow River and the Zhang, seize Fanwu, and converge beneath Handan. We wish to set the day for battle and settle matters as King Wu of Zhou settled with the tyrant Zhou of Shang. I have been sent respectfully to inform Your Majesty in advance.

"The one Your Majesty trusted to forge the Vertical Alliance was Su Qin. Su Qin dazzled the feudal lords, called right wrong and wrong right. He plotted to overthrow Qi but ended up torn apart by chariots in the marketplace. That the world cannot be unified by such means is obvious. Now Chu is Qin's brother state. Han and Wei have declared themselves Qin's eastern vassals. Qi has offered its fish-and-salt territories. This is to sever Zhao's right arm. To fight with a severed right arm, having lost all your allies and standing alone — to hope to avoid danger under such circumstances is impossible.

"Qin has now dispatched three armies. One blocks the Wudao road and instructs Qi to raise forces, cross the Clear River, and camp east of Handan. Another is stationed at Chenggao, driving Han and Wei's forces beyond the Yellow River. A third is encamped at Mianchi. Four states have been united against Zhao — Zhao's territory will certainly be quartered. Therefore I dare not conceal our intentions, and inform Your Majesty first. In my humble judgment, nothing would serve Your Majesty better than to meet the King of Qin at Mianchi. Meet face to face, conclude an agreement by word of mouth, and request that all armies stand down. I beg Your Majesty to decide."

The King of Zhao said: "In my late father's time, Lord Fengyang monopolized power, deceived the former king, and controlled all state affairs by himself. I was young, still under my tutors, and took no part in governance. When the former king passed away, I was young and newly come to the ancestral sacrifices. In my heart I had already doubted whether the Vertical Alliance and refusal to serve Qin truly served the state's long-term interests. I had been inclined to change course, cede territory, apologize for past offenses, and serve Qin. I was about to ready my carriage and set out when I received your envoy's instructions." The King of Zhao agreed to Zhang Yi's proposal, and Zhang Yi departed.

Zhang Yi traveled north to Yan and addressed King Zhao:

"No state is closer to Your Majesty than Zhao. Yet consider this: in ancient times, Zhao Xiangzi married his sister to the King of Dai, intending to annex Dai. He arranged a meeting with the King of Dai at the Juzhu Pass. He had his craftsmen fashion a bronze ladle with an elongated handle, fit for striking a man. He dined with the King of Dai and secretly instructed the kitchen servants: 'When the drinking is at its height and spirits are merry, serve the hot broth — then reverse the ladle and strike.' And so it was: when the wine was flowing and all were merry, the hot broth was served. The servant approached to pour, reversed the ladle, and struck the King of Dai, killing him. His brains spilled on the ground. When Zhao Xiangzi's sister heard the news, she sharpened her hairpin and stabbed herself to death. To this day there is a mountain called Hairpin-Grinding Mountain. The destruction of the King of Dai was known throughout the world.

"Zhao's rulers are cruel and treacherous, without natural affection — Your Majesty can see this clearly. Can you regard the King of Zhao as trustworthy? Zhao has raised troops and attacked Yan, twice besieging your capital and coercing Your Majesty. You ceded ten cities to buy peace. Now the King of Zhao has already attended court at Mianchi and yielded Hejian to serve Qin. If Your Majesty does not serve Qin, Qin will send its army through Yunzhong and Jiuyuan, driving Zhao to attack Yan — then the Yi River and the Long Wall will no longer be yours.

"At present Zhao is to Qin as a commandery or county — it dares not raise troops independently. If Your Majesty serves Qin, the King of Qin will be pleased, and Zhao will not dare move. You will have mighty Qin's support to the west and no threat from Qi or Zhao to the south. I beg Your Majesty to consider carefully."

The King of Yan said: "We are a backward people dwelling on the frontier. Even our grown men are no better than children. Our judgment is not fit to discern the correct course. Since our honored guest has been kind enough to instruct us, we are willing to face west and serve Qin. We offer five cities at the tail of the Heng Mountains." The King of Yan accepted Zhang Yi's proposal.

Zhang Yi returned to report his success, but before he reached Xianyang, King Hui of Qin died and King Wu succeeded him. King Wu had disliked Zhang Yi since his days as Crown Prince. Upon taking the throne, many ministers slandered Zhang Yi: "He is untrustworthy, selling out states left and right to ingratiate himself. If Qin continues to employ him, we will become the laughingstock of the world." When the feudal lords heard that Zhang Yi had fallen from favor with King Wu, they all abandoned the Horizontal Alliance and reformed the Vertical Alliance.

In the first year of King Wu of Qin, ministers maligned Zhang Yi day and night without ceasing, and protests from Qi arrived as well. Zhang Yi feared execution. He told King Wu: "I have a humble plan I wish to present." The king said: "What is it?" Zhang Yi replied: "For the sake of Qin's altars of state, there must be a great upheaval in the east before Your Majesty can seize large amounts of territory. I hear the King of Qi despises me — wherever I am, he will raise an army to attack. Therefore let me take my worthless self to Wei. Qi will certainly raise an army to attack Wei. When Qi and Wei's forces are locked in battle below the walls, unable to disengage, Your Majesty can use the opportunity to attack Han, enter the Three Rivers region, march troops out of Hangu Pass without opposition, and advance on Zhou. The ritual vessels will certainly be surrendered. Hold the Son of Heaven hostage, control the maps and registers — this is the path to royal supremacy." The King of Qin agreed and provided thirty leather-canopied chariots to convey Zhang Yi to Wei.

Qi indeed raised an army to attack. King Ai of Wei was alarmed. Zhang Yi said: "Your Majesty need not worry. I will make Qi withdraw its troops." He sent his retainer Feng Xi to Chu and then on to Qi, where Feng Xi told the King of Qi: "Your Majesty deeply hates Zhang Yi. That may be so, but how generously you have served as Zhang Yi's patron in Qin!" The King of Qi said: "I hate Zhang Yi. Wherever he is, I raise an army to attack. How am I his patron?" Feng Xi replied: "That is precisely how you are his patron. When Zhang Yi left Qin, he had already agreed with the King of Qin on this plan: 'For Your Majesty's sake, there must be a great upheaval in the east before you can seize territory. The King of Qi despises me — wherever I am, he raises an army to attack. So let me go to Wei. Qi will attack Wei. While Qi and Wei are locked in battle, Your Majesty attacks Han, enters the Three Rivers, marches out of Hangu Pass, and advances on Zhou. The ritual vessels are yours. Hold the Son of Heaven, control the registers — that is royal supremacy.' The King of Qin agreed, and so provided thirty chariots to send Zhang Yi to Wei. Now Zhang Yi has entered Wei and Your Majesty has attacked — precisely as planned. You exhaust your own state internally and attack a friendly state externally, expanding your neighbor's enemies while wearing yourself down, all while confirming Zhang Yi's credibility with the King of Qin. This is what I mean by 'patronizing Zhang Yi.'" The King of Qi said: "Well argued." He ordered his troops to withdraw.

Zhang Yi served as Prime Minister of Wei for one year and died in Wei.

Chen Zhen was an itinerant persuader. He served King Hui of Qin alongside Zhang Yi; both were highly valued, and they competed for favor. Zhang Yi slandered Chen Zhen to the king: "Chen Zhen carries lavish gifts and treats his diplomatic missions between Qin and Chu lightly, supposedly conducting state business. Yet Chu shows no more goodwill toward Qin but is well disposed toward Chen Zhen personally — which means he enriches himself while serving Your Majesty poorly. Moreover, he intends to leave Qin for Chu. Why not let him go?"

The king said to Chen Zhen: "I hear you wish to leave Qin for Chu. Is this true?" Chen Zhen said: "It is." The king said: "Then Zhang Yi's words are confirmed." Chen Zhen replied: "It is not Zhang Yi alone who knows this — every man on the road knows it. In ancient times, Wu Zixu was loyal to his lord, and every state in the world competed to employ him. Zeng Shen was filial to his parents, and every household wished to have him as a son. When a servant is sold without leaving the neighborhood, it is because the servant is good. When a divorced wife remarries within her village, it is because the wife is good. If Chen Zhen were not loyal to his lord, why would Chu want me for my loyalty? If I am cast out despite my loyalty, where should I go if not to Chu?" The king considered his argument sound and continued to treat him well.

After Chen Zhen had been in Qin for a full year, King Hui ultimately appointed Zhang Yi as Prime Minister, and Chen Zhen fled to Chu. Chu did not value him highly, but sent him as envoy to Qin. Passing through Wei, he wished to see Xianshou. Xianshou declined the meeting. Chen Zhen said: "I have come on business. If you will not see me, I must leave and cannot wait for another day." Xianshou received him. Chen Zhen said: "Why do you spend your days drinking?" Xianshou said: "I have nothing to do." Chen Zhen said: "Shall I arrange for you to have more business than you can handle?" Xianshou said: "How?" Chen Zhen said: "Tian Xu has been negotiating a Vertical Alliance with the feudal lords. The King of Chu is suspicious and has not committed. Tell the King of Wei: 'I have old acquaintance with the kings of Yan and Zhao. They have sent messengers repeatedly saying: Since we have no pressing business, why not meet? I beg your leave to visit them.' The king will grant permission. But take only thirty chariots — display them openly in the courtyard and announce loudly that you are going to Yan and Zhao." When envoys from Yan and Zhao heard this, they raced back to inform their kings, who sent delegations to welcome Xianshou. When the King of Chu heard that Xianshou had gone north, he was furious: "Tian Xu made an agreement with me, yet Xianshou goes to Yan and Zhao — this is a betrayal!" In his anger he rejected Tian Xu's alliance proposal. When Qi heard that Xianshou had gone north, it sent representatives to entrust business to him. Xianshou proceeded on his journey, and the affairs of three states all came under his direction. Chen Zhen then continued on to Qin.

Han and Wei were at war, and after a full year the conflict remained unresolved. King Hui of Qin wished to intervene and consulted his ministers. Some said intervention was advantageous; others said it was not. The king could not decide.

Chen Zhen happened to arrive in Qin. King Hui said: "You left me for Chu — did you ever think of me?" Chen Zhen replied: "Has Your Majesty heard of Zhuang Xi, the man from Yue?" The king said: "I have not." Chen Zhen said: "Zhuang Xi was from Yue but served in Chu, where he rose to the rank of Jade Tablet Holder. After a time he fell ill. The King of Chu said: 'Xi was originally a lowly commoner from Yue. Now he serves in Chu as a high-ranking noble — rich and honored. Does he still think of Yue?' An attendant replied: 'When people think of their homeland, it shows in their illness. If he thinks of Yue, he will moan in the Yue dialect; if not, in the Chu dialect.' They sent someone to listen — and he was still moaning in the Yue dialect. Now, though I was cast out and sent to Chu, how could I not still speak with a Qin accent?"

King Hui said: "Good. Now, Han and Wei have been at war for a year without resolution. Some advise me to intervene, others to stay out. I cannot decide. Since you have been planning for your own lord, please plan for me as well."

Chen Zhen replied: "Has Your Majesty heard the story of Bian Zhuangzi killing the tigers? Zhuangzi wished to slay a tiger. An innkeeper's boy stopped him, saying: 'Two tigers are feeding on an ox. When the meal grows sweet they will fight over it. When they fight, the larger one will be wounded and the smaller one will die. Then strike the wounded one — with a single blow you will have the fame of killing two tigers.' Bian Zhuangzi agreed and waited. In a short while the two tigers did fight. The larger was wounded, the smaller killed. Zhuangzi struck the wounded one and indeed gained the credit for killing two tigers in a single stroke. Now Han and Wei have been at war for a year without resolution. The larger state must be wounded and the smaller must perish. Strike the wounded one, and with a single blow you gain both. This is the tiger-killing strategy. My lord's situation and yours are no different."

King Hui said: "Excellent." He did not intervene. The larger state was indeed wounded, the smaller perished, and Qin raised troops and attacked — winning a great victory. This was Chen Zhen's stratagem.

Xianshou was a native of Yinjin in Wei. His given name was Yan and his surname Gongsun. He and Zhang Yi were rivals.

When Zhang Yi went from Qin to Wei, the King of Wei appointed Zhang Yi as Prime Minister. Xianshou, finding this disadvantageous to himself, had someone tell Gongshu of Han: "Zhang Yi has already united Qin and Wei. Their plan is: 'Wei attacks Nanyang, Qin attacks the Three Rivers.' The reason the King of Wei values Zhang Yi is that he wants Han's territory. Since Han's Nanyang is already exposed, why not cede a small portion as a favor to Gongsun Yan? This would drive a wedge between the Qin-Wei alliance. Wei would then turn against Qin, discard Zhang Yi, draw closer to Han, and make Gongsun Yan prime minister." Gongshu thought this advantageous and ceded territory to Xianshou as his achievement. Xianshou did indeed become Prime Minister of Wei, and Zhang Yi departed.

The lord of Yiqu came to pay court in Wei. Xianshou, hearing that Zhang Yi had again become Prime Minister of Qin, sought to undermine him. He told the lord of Yiqu: "The road is long and we may not meet again, so let me share something important. When the Central States are at peace, Qin will be free to raid and burn your lands. But when the Central States are at war, Qin will send light envoys with rich gifts to court your favor."

Later, five states attacked Qin. Chen Zhen happened to tell the King of Qin: "The lord of Yiqu is a worthy ruler among the barbarians. It would be better to bribe him to keep him content." The King of Qin agreed and sent a thousand bolts of embroidered silk and a hundred women as gifts to the lord of Yiqu. The lord of Yiqu summoned his ministers and deliberated: "Is this not exactly what Gongsun Yan predicted?" He raised troops, raided Qin, and inflicted a great defeat on Qin's forces at Libo.

After Zhang Yi's death, Xianshou entered Qin as Prime Minister. He once held the seals of prime minister from five states simultaneously and served as the alliance leader.

The Grand Historian observes: The Three Jin states produced an abundance of men skilled in strategic maneuvering. Those who argued for the Vertical and Horizontal alliances to strengthen Qin were almost all men of the Three Jin. Zhang Yi's conduct was worse than Su Qin's. Yet the world blames Su Qin more, because Su Qin died first, and Zhang Yi exposed and magnified Su Qin's failings to bolster his own arguments and advance his Horizontal Alliance. In the end, both men were truly practitioners of perilous and destabilizing arts.

Before Zhang Yi met his moment, he endured repeated humiliation and hardship. Once he became Prime Minister under King Hui, he dealt first with Han, then with Shu. He forged horizontal alliances with Qi and Wei through persuasion and deception. Chen Zhen wielded influence through cunning, and Xianshou pursued his ambitions freely. How remarkable that the Three Jin should produce such men in succession.