廉頗藺相如列傳

Lian Po was a distinguished general of Zhao. In the sixteenth year of King Huiwen of Zhao, Lian Po led Zhao's forces against Qi, inflicted a major defeat, and captured Yangjin. He was appointed Senior Minister and became renowned among the states for his valor. Lin Xiangru was a man of Zhao who served as a retainer in the household of Miao Xian, the chief eunuch.

During the reign of King Huiwen, Zhao came into possession of the He Shi Bi — the jade disc of Master He, originally from Chu. King Zhao of Qin heard of this and sent a letter to the King of Zhao, offering to exchange fifteen cities for the jade.

The King of Zhao consulted with General Lian Po and his senior ministers. To give the jade to Qin risked getting nothing in return — being cheated outright. To refuse risked a Qin invasion. They could reach no decision and could find no one suitable to send as envoy to Qin.

The chief eunuch Miao Xian said: "My retainer Lin Xiangru would be suitable." The king asked how he knew. Miao Xian replied: "I once committed an offense and secretly planned to flee to Yan. Xiangru stopped me, saying: 'How do you know the King of Yan?' I said I had once accompanied Your Majesty to a border meeting with the King of Yan, and the Yan king had secretly clasped my hand and said he wished to be friends. Xiangru told me: 'Zhao is strong and Yan is weak. The King of Yan wished to befriend you only because you enjoy Zhao's king's favor. If you flee to Yan, Yan will fear Zhao and will not dare shelter you — they will bind you and send you back. You would do better to bare your shoulders, present yourself at the chopping block, and beg forgiveness. Then you may be pardoned.' I followed his advice, and Your Majesty pardoned me. I believe this man has both courage and wisdom — he is suitable for the mission."

The king summoned Lin Xiangru and asked: "The King of Qin offers fifteen cities for my jade. Should I agree?"

Xiangru said: "Qin is strong and Zhao is weak. You cannot refuse."

"But if he takes my jade and does not give the cities?"

"If Qin offers cities for the jade and Zhao refuses, Zhao is in the wrong. If Zhao gives the jade and Qin withholds the cities, Qin is in the wrong. Weighing both options, it is better to agree and put Qin in the wrong."

"Who can serve as envoy?"

"If Your Majesty has no one else, I am willing to take the jade as your envoy. If the cities come to Zhao, the jade stays in Qin. If the cities do not come, I will return the jade intact to Zhao."

The King of Zhao sent Lin Xiangru west with the jade.

The King of Qin received Xiangru at the Zhangtai Palace. Xiangru presented the jade. The King of Qin was delighted. He passed it to his consorts and attendants, and they all cried 'ten thousand years!' Xiangru saw that the King of Qin had no intention of honoring the exchange. He stepped forward and said: "There is a flaw in the jade. Allow me to point it out."

The king handed the jade back. Xiangru took it and stepped back to lean against a pillar. His hair bristled with rage beneath his cap. He said to the King of Qin:

"Your Majesty desired this jade and sent a letter to the King of Zhao. Zhao's king summoned all his ministers to deliberate. They all said: 'Qin is greedy. Relying on its strength, it demands the jade with empty promises — we will never see those cities.' They were prepared to refuse. But I argued that even common people do not cheat each other in their dealings — how much more should great states keep faith. Moreover, to offend mighty Qin over a single jade would be unwise. So the King of Zhao fasted for five days, sent me with the jade, and bowed to present his letter in the court. Why? To show respect for a great state's authority.

"Yet when I arrived, Your Majesty received me in a side gallery with casual ceremony. Upon getting the jade, you passed it to your women to toy with — mocking me. I saw that Your Majesty had no intention of giving Zhao the cities, so I took the jade back. If Your Majesty presses me, my head and this jade will shatter together against this pillar!"

Xiangru held the jade up, eyeing the pillar as if about to smash it. The King of Qin, fearing the jade would be destroyed, apologized profusely and begged him to stop. He summoned officials to consult maps and pointed out fifteen cities to be given to Zhao.

Xiangru judged this a feint — the king was merely pretending. He said: "The He Shi Bi is a treasure known to all the world. The King of Zhao was afraid and dared not refuse to present it. He fasted for five days before sending it. Your Majesty should also fast for five days and receive the jade in a formal ceremony with the Nine Guests protocol. Only then will I dare present it."

The King of Qin calculated that he could not take the jade by force, and agreed to fast for five days, lodging Xiangru at the Guangcheng guesthouse. Xiangru was certain the king would break his word. He had a servant dress in rough clothes, hide the jade inside his garments, and slip away by a back road to return the jade to Zhao.

After the five days of fasting, the King of Qin held a formal ceremony with the Nine Guests protocol and summoned the Zhao envoy Lin Xiangru.

Xiangru said: "From Duke Mu onward, Qin has had over twenty rulers, and not one has ever kept a firm agreement. I genuinely feared Your Majesty would cheat me and betray Zhao, so I sent the jade back. It has already reached Zhao by a secret route. Qin is strong and Zhao is weak. If Your Majesty sends a single envoy to Zhao, Zhao will deliver the jade immediately. But if mighty Qin first cedes the fifteen cities, would Zhao dare keep the jade and offend Your Majesty? I know that deceiving Your Majesty deserves death. I submit myself to the boiling cauldron. I ask only that Your Majesty and your ministers consider the matter carefully."

The King of Qin and his ministers looked at each other and laughed bitterly. Some attendants wanted to drag Xiangru away, but the king said: "If we kill Xiangru now, we will never get the jade, and we will destroy all goodwill between Qin and Zhao. Better to treat him generously and send him home. Would the King of Zhao really cheat Qin over a single jade?" He received Xiangru with full ceremony and sent him back.

When Xiangru returned, the King of Zhao considered him a worthy minister who had not disgraced Zhao before the other states, and appointed him Senior Grand Master. Qin did not give the cities to Zhao. Zhao did not give the jade to Qin.

Afterward, Qin attacked Zhao and took Shicheng. The following year, Qin attacked again and killed twenty thousand.

The King of Qin sent envoys to the King of Zhao, proposing a friendly meeting at Mianchi, west of the Yellow River. The King of Zhao feared Qin and wanted to decline. Lian Po and Lin Xiangru counseled: "If Your Majesty does not go, it will show Zhao to be weak and cowardly."

The King of Zhao went, with Xiangru attending him. Lian Po escorted the king to the border and took his leave, saying: "Counting the distance and the time needed for the ceremonies, Your Majesty should return within thirty days. If you have not returned in thirty days, I request permission to enthrone the Crown Prince as king — to cut off any hope Qin might have of holding you hostage." The king agreed.

At the Mianchi meeting, the King of Qin was deep in his cups when he said: "I hear the King of Zhao is fond of music. Please play the se for us."

The King of Zhao played the se. The Qin recorder stepped forward and wrote: "On such-and-such a date, the King of Qin drank with the King of Zhao and commanded the King of Zhao to play the se."

Lin Xiangru stepped forward: "The King of Zhao hears that the King of Qin excels at Qin-style music. Please strike the fou for the King of Zhao, so we may entertain each other."

The King of Qin was furious and refused. Xiangru advanced, knelt, and offered the fou to the King of Qin. The king would not strike it.

Xiangru said: "Within five paces, I can spatter Your Majesty with the blood from my neck!"

The attendants moved to kill Xiangru. Xiangru opened his eyes wide and roared at them. They all shrank back. The King of Qin, displeased, struck the fou once.

Xiangru turned and summoned the Zhao recorder to write: "On such-and-such a date, the King of Qin struck the fou for the King of Zhao."

Qin's ministers said: "We request that the King of Zhao offer fifteen of Zhao's cities as a toast to the King of Qin."

Xiangru replied: "We request that Qin's capital Xianyang be offered as a toast to the King of Zhao."

The banquet ended. Qin was unable to gain any advantage over Zhao. Zhao had also deployed its army in strength to await Qin, and Qin did not dare make a move.

After they returned home, the king elevated Lin Xiangru for his great service and appointed him Senior Minister, ranked above Lian Po.

Lian Po said: "I am Zhao's general. I have won glory in siege warfare and pitched battles. Lin Xiangru has achieved nothing but clever talk, yet he is placed above me. Besides, Xiangru is a man of low birth. I am ashamed and refuse to serve beneath him." He declared openly: "When I see Xiangru, I will humiliate him."

Xiangru heard this and avoided all encounters. At every court audience he pleaded illness to avoid standing in rank with Lian Po. Whenever he went out and spotted Lian Po's carriage in the distance, he would turn his own carriage aside and hide.

His retainers confronted him: "We left our families to serve you because we admired your sense of honor. Now you share equal rank with Lian Po, and when he publicly insults you, you hide and cower. Even an ordinary man would be ashamed of this — how much more so a general and a minister! We are unworthy servants. We wish to resign."

Lin Xiangru firmly stopped them. He said: "How does General Lian compare with the King of Qin?"

"He does not compare."

"I faced the King of Qin in his own court, berated him, and humiliated his ministers. Dull as I may be, would I fear General Lian? But consider this: the reason mighty Qin does not dare attack Zhao is solely because the two of us are here. If two tigers fight, they cannot both survive. I act as I do because I put the nation's crisis before my private grudge."

When Lian Po heard this, he bared his shoulders, bound thorn branches to his back, and went with attendants to Lin Xiangru's gate to beg forgiveness.

He said: "This coarse and petty man did not know that your generosity reached so far."

They became the deepest of friends — friends who would die for each other.

That year, Lian Po attacked Qi to the east and destroyed one of its armies. Two years later, he attacked Qi's city of Ji and took it. Three years after that, he attacked Wei's cities of Fangling and Anyang and took them. Four years later, Lin Xiangru led a campaign against Qi, reaching Pingyi before withdrawing. The following year, Zhao She defeated a Qin army below Eyu.

Zhao She was a tax official in Zhao's agricultural department. When he was collecting taxes, the household of Lord Pingyuan refused to pay. Zhao She enforced the law and executed nine of Lord Pingyuan's stewards. Lord Pingyuan was furious and was about to have Zhao She killed.

Zhao She said: "My lord, you are Zhao's most honored prince. If your household flouts the law, the law weakens. If the law weakens, the state weakens. If the state weakens, the other states will attack. If the other states attack, there will be no Zhao — and how then would you keep your wealth? But if someone of your eminence obeys the law, then high and low are in balance. If high and low are in balance, the state is strong. If the state is strong, Zhao is secure. And as a royal kinsman, would you then count for less in the world?"

Lord Pingyuan recognized his worth and recommended him to the king. The king put him in charge of national revenues. Revenue collection became orderly, the people grew prosperous, and the treasury filled.

Qin attacked Han and positioned its army at Eyu. The king summoned Lian Po and asked: "Can we rescue it?" Lian Po replied: "The road is long, dangerous, and narrow. It would be difficult." He summoned Yue Cheng and asked the same; Yue Cheng agreed with Lian Po.

He then asked Zhao She, who said: "The road is long, dangerous, and narrow — it is like two rats fighting in a hole. The braver commander will win." The king appointed Zhao She to lead the relief force.

Thirty li from Handan, Zhao She halted and issued an order: "Anyone who offers advice on military matters will be executed." Qin's army was positioned west of Wu'an. The Qin troops beat their drums and shouted battle cries so loudly that the roof tiles of Wu'an shook. A scout in Zhao She's army urged an immediate rescue of Wu'an. Zhao She had him executed on the spot.

He fortified his position and remained stationary for twenty-eight days, adding more ramparts. A Qin spy infiltrated the camp; Zhao She fed him well and sent him back. The spy reported to the Qin commander, who was delighted: "He stopped thirty li from his own capital and will not advance — he is just building more walls. Eyu will not be Zhao's."

Once the spy was gone, Zhao She rolled up his armor and marched at speed, arriving in a day and two nights. He positioned his best archers fifty li from Eyu and built fortifications. When the Qin forces learned of his arrival, they mustered their full strength and came.

A soldier named Xu Li requested permission to offer military advice. Zhao She said: "Let him in."

Xu Li said: "The Qin forces do not expect Zhao's army to be here. They will come with fierce momentum. You must concentrate your formation in depth to receive them, or you will be defeated."

Zhao She said: "I accept your advice."

Xu Li said: "I submit myself to the executioner's blade."

Zhao She said: "Wait until we are back in Handan for that."

Xu Li pressed further: "Whoever seizes the northern hill first will win. Whoever arrives second will lose."

Zhao She agreed and immediately sent ten thousand men racing for the hill. The Qin forces arrived second and could not take the high ground. Zhao She unleashed his full army and routed the Qin forces. The Qin army broke and fled. The siege of Eyu was lifted.

King Huiwen of Zhao bestowed on Zhao She the title Lord of Mafu, and appointed Xu Li as National Commandant. From then on, Zhao She stood equal in rank with Lian Po and Lin Xiangru.

Four years later, King Huiwen of Zhao died and his son King Xiaocheng succeeded him. In the seventh year of the new reign, Qin and Zhao confronted each other at Changping. Zhao She had already died and Lin Xiangru was gravely ill. Zhao sent Lian Po to command against Qin.

Qin defeated Zhao's forces several times. Lian Po fortified his position and refused to engage. Qin challenged him repeatedly; he would not come out. The King of Zhao believed Qin's planted disinformation. Qin's agents spread the rumor: "The only man Qin fears as Zhao's commander is Zhao Kuo, son of Lord Mafu."

The king replaced Lian Po with Zhao Kuo. Lin Xiangru said: "Your Majesty appoints Kuo on the strength of his reputation — it is like gluing down the bridge-pegs of a se and trying to play it. Kuo can only recite his father's writings. He does not understand how to adapt to real conditions." The king would not listen.

From youth, Zhao Kuo had studied military theory and debated warfare, claiming no one in the world could match him. He had once discussed strategy with his father. Zhao She could not refute his arguments, yet would not praise him.

Zhao Kuo's mother asked Zhao She why. He said: "War is a matter of life and death, and Kuo treats it lightly. If Zhao does not appoint him as general, so be it. But if it does, the one who destroys Zhao's army will be Kuo."

When Zhao Kuo was about to depart, his mother petitioned the king: "Kuo must not be made general."

"Why not?"

"When I served his father as his wife, your father was general. He personally served food and drink to dozens of men. He considered hundreds his friends. Everything Your Majesty and the royal house bestowed on him, he gave away to his officers and soldiers. From the day he received his commission, he never asked about household affairs.

"Now Kuo has been general for one day, and he holds audience facing east while none of his officers dare look up at him. The gold and silk Your Majesty has given him, he takes home and stores. Every day he looks for bargain farmland and houses to buy. Does Your Majesty think he is like his father? Father and son have different hearts. I beg you not to send him."

The king said: "Madam, let it rest. My mind is made up."

The mother said: "If Your Majesty sends him and he fails, may I at least be spared from sharing his punishment?" The king agreed.

When Zhao Kuo replaced Lian Po, he immediately changed all the standing orders and replaced the officers. The Qin commander Bai Qi heard this and released surprise forces, feigned retreat, and cut Zhao's supply lines, splitting their army in two. The soldiers lost heart.

For over forty days the army starved. Zhao Kuo led his best troops in a desperate charge. Qin archers killed him. His army collapsed. Hundreds of thousands surrendered to Qin. Qin buried them all alive. Zhao's total losses, front and rear, amounted to 450,000.

The following year, Qin besieged Handan. For over a year, Zhao nearly fell. Only relief forces from Chu, Wei, and the other states saved the capital.

The King of Zhao, remembering Zhao Kuo's mother's earlier warning, did not punish her.

Five years after the siege of Handan was lifted, Yan adopted the plan of Li Fu, who argued: "Zhao's fighting men all perished at Changping, and the orphans have not yet grown up." Yan raised its army and attacked Zhao.

Zhao sent Lian Po to command. He crushed Yan's army at Hao, killed Li Fu, and besieged the Yan capital. Yan ceded five cities to buy peace. Zhao then sealed Lian Po as Lord Xinping at Wei Wen, with the title of Acting Chancellor.

When Lian Po had been dismissed after Changping and lost his position, all his retainers left him. When he was restored to command, they all returned. Lian Po said: "Leave, all of you!"

The retainers said: "Sir, how slow you are to understand! The world deals in the way of the market. When you have power, we follow you. When you have none, we leave. This is simply how it works. What is there to resent?"

Six years later, Zhao sent Lian Po to attack Wei's city of Fanyang, and he took it.

King Xiaocheng of Zhao died and was succeeded by King Daoxiang, who sent Yue Cheng to replace Lian Po. Lian Po was furious and attacked Yue Cheng, who fled. Lian Po then fled to Wei's capital Daliang.

The following year, Zhao appointed Li Mu as general. He attacked Yan and captured Wusui and Fangcheng.

Lian Po lived in Daliang for a long time, but Wei would not entrust him with responsibility. Zhao, hard-pressed by Qin's armies, thought about recalling Lian Po. Lian Po too wished to serve Zhao again.

The King of Zhao sent an envoy to assess whether Lian Po was still fit for service. Lian Po's enemy Guo Kai bribed the envoy heavily and instructed him to deliver a damaging report.

When the envoy met Lian Po, the old general ate a peck of rice and ten jin of meat at a single meal, then donned his armor and mounted his horse to demonstrate that he was still capable.

The envoy returned and reported: "General Lian, though old, still eats heartily. But while sitting with me, he had to relieve himself three times."

The King of Zhao concluded that Lian Po was too old, and did not recall him.

Chu heard that Lian Po was in Wei and secretly sent men to bring him south. Lian Po served one term as a Chu general but achieved nothing. He said: "I long to command Zhao's soldiers."

Lian Po died in Shouchun.

Li Mu was a distinguished general of Zhao's northern frontier. He was permanently stationed at Dai and Yanmen to defend against the Xiongnu. He appointed officers at his own discretion, and all market taxes went directly into his military treasury to fund his soldiers. Every day he slaughtered several oxen to feast the troops. He drilled them in archery and horsemanship, maintained strict beacon-fire signals, deployed numerous spies, and treated his warriors generously.

He issued standing orders: "When the Xiongnu raid, retreat immediately into the fortifications. Anyone who tries to engage or capture prisoners will be executed."

Whenever the Xiongnu came, the beacon fires were lit, the troops withdrew into their forts, and they did not fight. This went on for several years without a single loss. But the Xiongnu concluded that Li Mu was a coward. Even Zhao's own border troops thought their commander was timid.

The King of Zhao rebuked Li Mu. Li Mu continued as before. The king grew angry, recalled him, and appointed a replacement.

For over a year, whenever the Xiongnu raided, the new commander went out to fight. He suffered repeated defeats with heavy losses. The border population could no longer farm or raise livestock. The king asked Li Mu to return. Li Mu shut his doors, refused to come out, and declared himself ill.

The king forced him to accept command. Li Mu said: "If Your Majesty insists on using me, I must be allowed to follow my previous methods." The king agreed.

Li Mu returned and restored his old policies. For several years the Xiongnu gained nothing. They continued to regard him as a coward.

But Li Mu's border soldiers, who had received daily rewards without being used, were now eager to fight. Li Mu selected 1,300 war chariots, 13,000 cavalry horses, 50,000 soldiers who had earned the Hundred-Gold distinction, and 100,000 archers. He drilled them all intensively.

Then he released vast herds of livestock and let the people spread across the open fields. When a small Xiongnu raiding party came, he feigned defeat and abandoned several thousand men to them. The Chanyu heard the news and invaded in full force.

Li Mu deployed his army in elaborate formations, extending both wings to envelop the enemy, and struck. He annihilated over 100,000 Xiongnu cavalry. He destroyed the Zhanlan, broke the Donghu, and forced the Linhu to submit. The Chanyu fled.

For more than ten years afterward, the Xiongnu did not dare approach Zhao's border cities.

In the first year of King Daoxiang, Lian Po had fled to Wei. Zhao sent Li Mu to attack Yan, and he captured Wusui and Fangcheng. Two years later, Pang Nuan defeated the Yan army and killed Ju Xin.

Seven years after that, Qin defeated and killed the Zhao general Hu Zhe at Wusui, taking 100,000 heads. Zhao appointed Li Mu as Grand General. He engaged the Qin army at Yi'an, inflicted a devastating defeat, and routed the Qin general Huan Yi. Li Mu was enfeoffed as Lord of Wu'an.

Three years later, Qin attacked Fanwu. Li Mu defeated the Qin army again and also held the line against Han and Wei to the south.

In the seventh year of King Qian of Zhao, Qin sent Wang Jian to attack Zhao. Zhao sent Li Mu and Sima Shang to resist. Qin lavished gold on Zhao's court favorite Guo Kai and planted false intelligence that Li Mu and Sima Shang were planning to rebel.

The King of Zhao replaced Li Mu with Zhao Cong and the Qi general Yan Ju. Li Mu refused to accept his dismissal. Zhao sent agents who seized him in secret and executed him. Sima Shang was dismissed.

Three months later, Wang Jian launched a full assault. He destroyed Zhao Cong's army, captured King Qian and the general Yan Ju, and extinguished the state of Zhao.

The Grand Historian remarks: To know that death awaits and still act bravely — this is not because dying is hard, but because deciding how to face death is hard. When Lin Xiangru held up the jade and eyed the pillar, when he roared at the King of Qin's attendants — the worst that could have happened was his execution. Yet many a man would have been too timid to act.

Xiangru summoned his courage in one great burst, awed and earned the respect of an enemy state, then withdrew and yielded to Lian Po. His reputation outweighed Mount Tai. In the way he handled both wisdom and courage, he may truly be called a man who possessed both.