李斯列傳

Li Si was a man of Shangcai in Chu. In his youth he served as a minor clerk in the commandery. He observed the rats in the privy of the clerks' quarters — they ate filthy scraps and were startled by every passing person or dog. Then Li Si went into the granary and observed the rats there — they feasted on heaped-up grain, sheltered beneath the great eaves, and were troubled by neither people nor dogs. Li Si sighed and said: "A man's worth or worthlessness is like these rats — it all depends on where he places himself!"

He thereupon went to study the arts of emperors and kings under Xunzi. When his studies were complete, he reckoned that the King of Chu was not worth serving and that the six states were all in decline, with no prospect for building great achievements. He wished to go west to Qin. He took his leave of Xunzi, saying: "I have heard that when opportunity comes, one must not be idle. The great states are contending now, and traveling advisors are the ones who direct affairs. The King of Qin wishes to swallow All-Under-Heaven and rule as Emperor — this is the season for commoners to gallop forth and the harvest-time for persuaders. To sit in a lowly position and make no plans — that is to be an animal staring at meat, wearing a human face but walking on all fours. No disgrace is greater than baseness, and no sorrow is deeper than poverty. To remain long in a lowly position and a wretched place, condemning the world and despising profit, entrusting oneself to inaction — this is not the true nature of a man of ambition. Therefore I shall go west and present my case to the King of Qin."

Li Si arrived in Qin just as King Zhuangxiang had died. He sought a position as a retainer under the Chancellor, Marquis Wenxin — Lü Buwei — who recognized his talent and appointed him as a gentleman-attendant. Through this position Li Si gained the opportunity to present his case. He addressed the King of Qin: "He who would win over people must seize the critical moment. He who would accomplish great deeds must exploit the cracks and press through without hesitation. In the past, Duke Mu of Qin achieved hegemony but never unified the six states to the east. Why? Because the lords were still numerous and the virtue of Zhou had not yet faded — hence the Five Hegemons rose in succession, each honoring the Zhou court. But from Duke Xiao of Qin onward, the Zhou court declined into insignificance. The lords have been devouring one another. East of the passes there are now only six states, and Qin has been riding its victories and commanding the lords for six generations. Today the lords submit to Qin as though they were commanderies and counties. With Qin's strength and Your Majesty's ability, sweeping them away would be like brushing crumbs from a stove-top — enough to destroy the lords, complete the imperial enterprise, and bring All-Under-Heaven under one rule. This is a once-in-ten-thousand-generations opportunity. If you hesitate and do not press forward, the lords will recover their strength and band together in a vertical alliance — then even with the wisdom of the Yellow Emperor, you could not unite them." The King of Qin appointed Li Si as Senior Secretary and adopted his strategy. He secretly dispatched agents carrying gold and jade to bribe and persuade the lords' courts. Those distinguished men who could be won over with wealth were richly bribed and bound to Qin. Those who would not comply were assassinated. The purpose was to sever the bonds between rulers and ministers. The King of Qin then sent his best generals to follow up. The king appointed Li Si as Guest Minister.

It happened that a man of Han named Zheng Guo came to Qin as a spy, working on the construction of an irrigation canal. His true purpose was eventually discovered. The Qin royal clan and senior ministers all told the king: "The men from the lords' states who come to serve Qin are, for the most part, working as agents for their own rulers. We request that all foreign officials be expelled." Li Si was among those slated for expulsion. He submitted a memorial:

"I have heard that the officials are discussing the expulsion of foreigners. I humbly consider this a mistake. In the past, Duke Mu sought men of talent: he obtained You Yu from the Rong in the west, gained Baili Xi from Wan in the east, welcomed Jian Shu from Song, and brought Pi Bao and Gongsun Zhi from Jin. These five men were not born in Qin, yet Duke Mu employed them, annexed twenty states, and achieved hegemony over the western Rong. Duke Xiao adopted the laws of Shang Yang, transformed customs and manners, enriched the people, strengthened the state, won the willing service of the populace and the submission of the lords, captured the armies of Chu and Wei, and extended Qin's territory by a thousand li — the effects last to this day. King Hui employed the stratagems of Zhang Yi, seized the Sanchuan lands, annexed Ba and Shu to the west, took Shang Commandery in the north, acquired Hanzhong in the south, absorbed the Nine Yi, dominated Yan and Ying, held the strategic pass of Chenggao in the east, and carved away the richest territories — thus dissolving the six states' vertical alliance and making them face west and serve Qin, a legacy that endures to the present. King Zhao obtained Fan Sui, dismissed the Marquis of Rang, expelled the Huayang faction, strengthened the royal house, blocked the private gates, nibbled away at the lords, and set Qin on the path to empire. These four rulers all achieved their successes through the work of foreigners. From this perspective, what have foreigners ever done to harm Qin? Had these four rulers rejected foreigners and refused to admit them, denied scholars and refused to employ them, then the state would have had no real wealth and Qin would have had no name for strength.

"Now Your Majesty possesses jade from the Kunlun Mountains, the treasures of Sui and He, pearls of the Bright Moon, the Tai'e sword, the Xianli horse, the Kingfisher-Phoenix banner, and the Spirit-Crocodile drum. Not one of these precious things was produced in Qin, yet Your Majesty delights in them. Why? If only what Qin produces were acceptable, then the Night-Shining Jade would not adorn the court, rhinoceros-horn and ivory vessels would not serve as playthings, the women of Zheng and Wei would not fill the inner palace, fine horses would not stock the stables, gold and tin from south of the Yangtze would not be used, and vermilion and azurite from western Shu would not provide pigments. If everything that adorns the inner palace, delights the heart, and pleases the eye and ear must come from Qin, then pearl-studded hairpins, bejeweled earrings, garments of Donghe silk, brocade embroidery — none of these would be set before you, and the graceful, alluring women of Zhao would not stand at your side. As for banging on jugs, rapping on crocks, twanging the zheng, and slapping thighs while singing in that droning way — that is truly Qin's native music. The music of Zheng and Wei, of Sangjian, Zhao, Yu, Wu, and Xiang — that is foreign music. Yet now you abandon the jug-banging and crock-rapping for the music of Zheng and Wei, set aside the zheng for the melodies of Zhao and Yu. Why? Because what pleases at the moment and suits the eye is all that matters. But in selecting men, you do the opposite. Without asking whether they are fit, without considering right or wrong — if they are not from Qin, they go; if they are foreigners, they are expelled. Then what you value is music, women, pearls, and jade, and what you disregard is people. This is not the way to stride over the realm and command the lords.

"I have heard that where land is broad, grain is plentiful; where a state is great, people are numerous; where arms are strong, soldiers are brave. Mount Tai does not reject any soil — that is how it achieved its height. Rivers and seas do not refuse any stream — that is how they achieved their depth. A king does not turn away the multitudes — that is how he makes his virtue manifest. Therefore: territory knows no fixed direction, people know no native or foreign, the four seasons are filled with bounty, and the spirits send down blessings — this is why the Five Emperors and Three Kings were without rival. Now you would cast away the black-headed people to strengthen enemy states, and reject guest officials to build up the lords' power, causing the talented men of All-Under-Heaven to retreat and not dare face west, wrapping their feet and refusing to enter Qin. This is what they call 'lending arms to bandits and provisions to thieves.'

"There are many things not produced in Qin that are worth treasuring; there are many men not born in Qin who wish to be loyal. To expel foreigners now is to strengthen enemy states and diminish your own people, to hollow yourself out within while breeding resentment among the lords abroad. To seek a state free from danger under such conditions — that cannot be achieved."

The King of Qin rescinded the expulsion order, restored Li Si to his position, and ultimately adopted all his strategies. Li Si rose to the rank of Commandant of Justice. Over more than twenty years, Qin conquered All-Under-Heaven, and the king was honored as Emperor. Li Si was made Chancellor. They razed the walls of the commandery towns and melted down their weapons, signifying they would never be used again. Qin granted no fiefs of land, established no sons or brothers as kings, and elevated no meritorious ministers as lords — ensuring there would be no future threat of war.

In the thirty-fourth year of the First Emperor, a banquet was held at the Xianyang Palace. Zhou Qingchen, the chief of the Erudites, and others praised the Emperor's power and virtue. The Qi man Chunyu Yue came forward to remonstrate: "I have heard that the Yin and Zhou dynasties reigned for over a thousand years because they enfeoffed sons, brothers, and meritorious ministers as supporting pillars. Now Your Majesty possesses all within the seas, yet your sons and brothers are commoners. Should there ever be a crisis like that of Tian Chang or the Six Ministers, with no vassal supports, how would you be rescued? I have never heard of a system that does not model itself on antiquity and yet endures." The First Emperor referred the matter to the Chancellor. Li Si demolished the argument, rejected the rhetoric, and submitted a memorial: "In ancient times All-Under-Heaven was scattered and disordered — no one could unify it, and so the lords rose up in contention. All their talk invoked antiquity to damage the present, decorated empty words to confuse reality, and people praised their private learning to criticize what the sovereign had established. Now Your Majesty has unified All-Under-Heaven, distinguished black from white, and fixed a single authority. Yet the private schools band together to attack the laws and institutions of governance. Whenever an order is issued, each school judges it by its own private doctrines — dissenting in their hearts when at court, debating in the streets when outside. They criticize the ruler to make a name, take heterodox positions to seem lofty, and lead the masses in fabricating slander. If this is not prohibited, sovereign authority will decline above and factions will form below. Prohibition is the expedient course. I request that all who possess works of literature, the Odes, the Documents, and the writings of the Hundred Schools be required to surrender and destroy them. Any who have not done so within thirty days of the order shall be tattooed and sentenced to hard labor. Exempt from the ban shall be works of medicine, divination, and agriculture. Those who wish to study may take the officials as their teachers." The First Emperor approved the proposal. The Odes, the Documents, and the Hundred Schools' writings were confiscated and destroyed to keep the populace ignorant, ensuring no one could use antiquity to criticize the present. Laws were clarified, statutes were fixed — all dating from the First Emperor. The script was unified. Detached palaces and lodges were built throughout the realm. The following year came another imperial progress, and the barbarians on all four frontiers were driven back. In all of this, Li Si played a leading role.

Li Si's eldest son You served as Governor of Sanchuan. All his sons married Qin princesses, and all his daughters married Qin princes. When the Governor of Sanchuan, Li You, returned to Xianyang on leave, Li Si held a banquet at his home. Every senior official came to offer toasts. Carriages and horses at the gate numbered in the thousands. Li Si sighed deeply and said: "Alas! I recall what Xunzi said: 'Things must not be allowed to grow too great.' I am merely a commoner from Shangcai, one of the black-headed people from the back alleys. The sovereign, not knowing how dull and unworthy I was, elevated me to this. Among all the subjects of the realm, none holds a position above mine. This may be called the ultimate in wealth and honor. But when things reach their extreme, they decline. I do not yet know where to stop the carriage!"

In the tenth month of the thirty-seventh year of the First Emperor, he set out on an imperial progress to Kuaiji, traveled along the coast, and headed north to Langya. Chancellor Li Si and Zhao Gao, the Director of the Imperial Carriages who also managed the imperial seals, both accompanied him. The First Emperor had more than twenty sons. The eldest, Fusu, had repeatedly offered blunt remonstrances, and the Emperor had sent him to supervise the garrison at Shang Commandery under General Meng Tian. The youngest, Huhai, was the Emperor's favorite and had asked to come along. The Emperor permitted it. None of the other sons accompanied him.

In the seventh month of that year, the First Emperor reached Shaqiu and fell gravely ill. He ordered Zhao Gao to draft a letter to Prince Fusu: "Turn over command of the army to Meng Tian, bring the funeral cortege to Xianyang, and conduct the burial." The letter was sealed but had not yet been given to a courier when the First Emperor died. The letter and the imperial seal were both in Zhao Gao's possession. Only Huhai, Chancellor Li Si, Zhao Gao, and five or six trusted eunuchs knew of the Emperor's death; none of the other ministers knew. Li Si reasoned that the Emperor had died away from the capital with no officially designated crown prince, and therefore kept the death secret. He placed the Emperor's body in his enclosed carriage. The officials continued to submit reports and present meals as before, and eunuchs issued approvals of all state business from within the carriage.

Zhao Gao withheld the sealed letter intended for Fusu and said to Prince Huhai: "The Emperor is dead. There was no edict enfeoffing the other princes — only a letter to the eldest son. When the eldest son arrives, he will be installed as Emperor, and you will have not an inch of territory. What will you do?" Huhai said: "That is as it should be. I have heard that an enlightened ruler understands his ministers, and an enlightened father understands his sons. My father gave his command without enfeoffing us. What is there to say?" Zhao Gao said: "That is not so. At this moment, the power over All-Under-Heaven — survival or destruction — rests with you, with me, and with the Chancellor alone. I urge you to consider. Moreover, ruling others versus being ruled by others, commanding versus being commanded — can these be spoken of in the same breath?" Huhai said: "To depose an elder brother and install a younger one is unjust. To disobey a father's command out of fear of death is unfilial. To be of little ability and meager talent, forcibly seizing another's achievement, is incompetent. These three things violate virtue. All-Under-Heaven would not submit. I would endanger myself, and the state would lose its sacrifices." Zhao Gao said: "I have heard that Tang and Wu killed their sovereigns, and All-Under-Heaven praised them as just — no one calls that disloyal. The Lord of Wei killed his father, yet the state of Wei honored his virtue, and Confucius recorded it — no one calls that unfilial. He who does great things does not fuss over trifles; he who establishes great virtue does not yield to false modesty. Every village has its customs, and every office its different duties. To fixate on the small and forget the great — harm will surely follow. To waver and hesitate — regret will surely come. He who decides and dares to act — the very spirits stand aside, and success follows. I urge you to go through with it!" Huhai sighed deeply: "The funeral procession has not yet departed and the rites are not complete — how can I bring this matter to the Chancellor?" Zhao Gao said: "The time! The time! There is no moment to plan! Grab your provisions and mount your horse — our only fear should be arriving too late!"

When Huhai had accepted Zhao Gao's words, Zhao Gao said: "Unless we bring the Chancellor into the plan, I fear it cannot succeed. Let me negotiate with the Chancellor on your behalf." Zhao Gao went to Li Si and said: "The Emperor is dead. He bestowed a letter on the eldest son, directing him to bring the funeral to Xianyang and be installed as heir. The letter has not yet been sent. Now the Emperor is dead and no one knows. The letter to the eldest son and the imperial seal are all in Huhai's possession. Whether the crown prince is determined rests on the lips of you, my lord, and of me. What shall be done?" Li Si said: "How dare you speak of destroying the state! This is not a matter for subjects to discuss!" Zhao Gao said: "But consider, my lord — how do you compare with Meng Tian? In merit, who surpasses whom? In foresight and reliability, who is better? In popularity throughout the realm? In the trust and affection of the eldest son?" Li Si said: "In all five respects I fall short of Meng Tian. Why do you press me so hard?" Zhao Gao said: "I am merely a lowly servant of the inner palace. By luck I entered the Qin court through my skill with brush and knife, and I have managed affairs for more than twenty years. In all that time, I have never seen a dismissed Qin chancellor or meritorious minister whose enfeoffment lasted into the second generation — all were ultimately executed. The Emperor has more than twenty sons, as you well know. The eldest is resolute, martial, trusting of men, and a rallier of warriors. If he takes the throne, he will certainly make Meng Tian his chancellor. It is clear, my lord, that you will never carry the seal of a marquis back to your homeland. I received the imperial command to tutor Huhai, teaching him law and governance for several years. I have never seen a fault in him. He is benevolent, honest, generous with wealth, respectful of scholars, shrewd in his heart though restrained in speech, and punctilious in courtesy — none of Qin's other princes match him. He can be made heir. You must decide." Li Si said: "Return to your post! I follow the sovereign's edict and obey Heaven's command. What is there for me to decide?" Zhao Gao said: "What is safe can become dangerous; what is dangerous can become safe. If you cannot determine where safety and danger lie, how can you be called wise?" Li Si said: "I am a commoner from the back alleys of Shangcai. The sovereign was gracious enough to elevate me to chancellor and enfeoff me as a marquis. My sons and grandsons all hold high positions and rich stipends. It was precisely so that he could entrust me with matters of survival and destruction. How could I betray that trust? A loyal subject does not shrink from death in hope of survival. A filial son does not spare himself from hardship when danger looms. Each minister should simply guard his duty. Say no more — you will bring me to ruin." Zhao Gao said: "I have heard that the sage adapts to circumstances and follows the times. He sees the branch and knows the root, observes the pointing finger and perceives the destination. Things have always been so — where is the constant rule? Today the power of All-Under-Heaven hangs upon Huhai, and through him I can achieve my aims. Moreover, to be controlled from outside is called delusion; to be controlled from below is called rebellion. When autumn frost falls, the blossoms wither; when water stirs, all things come to life. This is the necessary effect. Why do you see it so late?" Li Si said: "I have heard that when Jin changed its crown prince, three generations were unstable. When Duke Huan of Qi's brothers fought for the throne, the duke himself was murdered. When King Zhou of Shang killed his kinsmen and refused remonstrance, the state became a wasteland and the altars were endangered. These three cases opposed Heaven, and the ancestral temples lost their sacrifices. I am only human — how can I be party to such schemes?" Zhao Gao said: "When those above and below are bound in agreement, it can endure long. When inner court and outer court are of one mind, affairs have no contradictions. If you follow my plan, you will hold a marquis's fief forever, your descendants will call themselves lords for generations, and you will have the longevity of Master Qiao and the Pine, and the wisdom of Confucius and Mo Di. But if you reject this and refuse to follow, disaster will reach your sons and grandsons — enough to make your blood run cold. A wise man turns disaster into fortune. Where do you stand?" Li Si then looked up to heaven and sighed, weeping and drawing a long breath: "Alas! To encounter a chaotic age alone — since I cannot bring myself to die, where shall I entrust my fate?" And so Li Si yielded to Zhao Gao.

They then conspired together to forge an edict purportedly from the First Emperor to the Chancellor, installing Huhai as crown prince. They also forged a new letter to the eldest son Fusu: "I have been touring All-Under-Heaven, praying at famous mountains and to the spirits to extend my life. Now Fusu and General Meng Tian have been commanding hundreds of thousands of troops on the frontier for over ten years, unable to advance, wasting soldiers and achieving nothing. Instead, Fusu has repeatedly sent memorials offering blunt criticism and slandering my actions, resentful that he was not recalled to be crown prince, complaining day and night. Fusu, as a son, is unfilial — he is granted a sword with which to take his own life! General Tian, stationed abroad with Fusu, has failed to correct him and must have been aware of his plotting. As a minister, he is disloyal — he is granted death. Command of the army shall pass to the deputy general Wang Li." The letter was sealed with the Emperor's seal, and a retainer of Huhai was sent to deliver it to Fusu at Shang Commandery.

When the messenger arrived and the letter was opened, Fusu wept. He went into the inner chamber, intending to kill himself. Meng Tian restrained him: "The Emperor is abroad and has not designated a crown prince. He appointed me to command three hundred thousand troops on the frontier, with you as overseer — this is one of the weightiest responsibilities in All-Under-Heaven. Now a single messenger arrives and you wish to kill yourself? How do you know this is not a forgery? Request confirmation — request it again, and if the answer is the same, then die. It will not be too late." The messenger pressed urgently. Fusu, who was by nature benevolent, said to Meng Tian: "When a father grants his son death, what further confirmation is needed?" He killed himself. Meng Tian refused to die. The messenger placed him under arrest and imprisoned him at Yangzhou.

The messenger returned with his report. Huhai, Li Si, and Zhao Gao were overjoyed. They reached Xianyang, announced the death, and the Crown Prince was installed as the Second Emperor. Zhao Gao was appointed Director of Court Gentlemen, serving constantly at the emperor's side and managing all affairs.

The Second Emperor was at leisure one day and summoned Zhao Gao to discuss matters. He said: "A man's life in this world is like driving six thoroughbreds past a crack in the wall. Now that I have come to rule All-Under-Heaven, I wish to exhaust every pleasure of the eye and ear, indulge every desire of the heart, secure the ancestral temples, gratify the masses, enjoy the empire forever, and live out my natural span. Is this possible?" Zhao Gao said: "This is what a worthy ruler can accomplish, but what a foolish ruler is forbidden from attempting. I beg leave to speak, not shrinking from the axe — I hope Your Majesty will give it a little thought. The plot at Shaqiu is suspected by all the princes and senior ministers. The princes are all Your Majesty's elder brothers, and the senior ministers were all appointed by the late Emperor. Now that Your Majesty has just come to the throne, they are all resentful and unsubmissive. I fear they will revolt. Moreover, Meng Tian is dead but Meng Yi still commands troops abroad. I tremble with dread that matters will not end well. How can Your Majesty enjoy his pleasures under such conditions?" The Second Emperor said: "What is to be done?" Zhao Gao said: "Make the laws severe and the punishments harsh. Enforce collective guilt — execute the families and clans of offenders. Destroy the senior ministers and distance the imperial kin. Enrich those who were poor, elevate those who were base. Remove all the late Emperor's old officials and replace them with those Your Majesty personally trusts. Thus the hidden virtue will accrue to Your Majesty, dangers will be eliminated, treacherous plots will be blocked. All ministers will bask in your generous favor, and Your Majesty may rest on a high pillow, indulge every whim, and feast through the night. No plan surpasses this." The Second Emperor agreed with Zhao Gao's words and revised the legal code. From then on, whenever ministers or princes were accused of a crime, they were turned over to Zhao Gao for interrogation and sentencing. The minister Meng Yi and others were killed. Twelve princes were publicly executed in the Xianyang marketplace. Ten princesses were crushed to death at Du. Their property was confiscated by the state. Those caught up in the collective guilt were beyond counting.

Prince Gao wished to flee but feared his entire clan would be arrested. He submitted a memorial: "When the late Emperor was alive, I was given meals when I entered the palace and a carriage when I left. Garments from the imperial wardrobe were bestowed upon me, and fine horses from the central stable were granted to me. I should have followed the late Emperor in death but could not. As a son, I was unfilial; as a subject, disloyal. One who is disloyal has no name by which to stand in the world. I beg to follow the late Emperor in death and ask to be buried at the foot of Mount Li. I humbly hope Your Majesty will take pity on me." When the memorial was submitted, the Second Emperor was delighted. He summoned Zhao Gao and showed it to him, saying: "Can this be called urgent?" Zhao Gao said: "A subject who is only worried about dying has no leisure to plot rebellion." The Second Emperor approved the memorial and granted a hundred thousand cash for the burial.

Laws and punishments grew ever harsher by the day. Every minister feared for his own life, and many wished to revolt. The Epang Palace was under construction, the straight roads and express highways were being built, taxes grew ever heavier, and conscript labor never ceased. Then the Chu garrison soldiers Chen Sheng and Wu Guang raised a rebellion, rising from east of the passes. Heroes established themselves on their own authority, styling themselves lords and kings, revolting against Qin. Their armies reached Hongmen before being turned back. Li Si repeatedly sought a private audience to remonstrate, but the Second Emperor would not permit it.

Earlier, when Zhao Gao served as Director of Court Gentlemen, he had killed many and settled many private grudges. Fearing that ministers might denounce him at court, he persuaded the Second Emperor: "The reason the Son of Heaven is revered is that he is heard but never seen — that is why he is called 'We.' Moreover, Your Majesty is young and may not yet be versed in every matter. If you sit in open court and happen to censure or promote someone improperly, the ministers will see your shortcomings. That is no way to display divine brilliance to All-Under-Heaven. Better for Your Majesty to remain secluded deep within the palace, where you and I and the attendants versed in law can handle affairs as they arise. This way, ministers will not dare submit doubtful matters, and All-Under-Heaven will call you a sagely ruler." The Second Emperor adopted this plan. He stopped holding court and receiving ministers, remaining secluded in the inner palace. Zhao Gao served constantly at his side, managing all affairs. Every decision was made by Zhao Gao.

When Zhao Gao heard that Li Si had been speaking against him, he went to the Chancellor and said: "Bandits swarm east of the passes, yet the Emperor keeps pressing for more conscript labor to build the Epang Palace and collecting useless dogs and horses. I wish to remonstrate, but my rank is too low. This is truly your affair, my lord — why do you not speak up?" Li Si said: "Indeed. I have wished to say this for a long time. But the Emperor no longer holds court. He stays deep in the palace. What I wish to say cannot be relayed through others, and I can find no opportunity for a private audience." Zhao Gao said: "If you truly wish to remonstrate, I will watch for a moment when the Emperor is free and inform you." Zhao Gao then waited until the Second Emperor was in the midst of private pleasures, with women in attendance, and sent word to the Chancellor: "The Emperor is free — you may submit your business." The Chancellor went to the palace gates and requested an audience. This happened three times. The Second Emperor was furious: "I have many free days when the Chancellor does not come. But the moment I am enjoying myself in private, the Chancellor always appears to press business on me. Does the Chancellor think little of me? Or is he trying to control me?" Zhao Gao seized the moment: "This is very dangerous! The Chancellor was part of the Shaqiu conspiracy. Now that Your Majesty is Emperor, the Chancellor's rank has not increased — he must be hoping for a partition of territory to become a king himself. Your Majesty did not ask me, so I dared not speak, but the Chancellor's eldest son Li You is Governor of Sanchuan. The Chu rebel Chen Sheng and his followers are all from counties near the Chancellor's home. That is why the Chu bandits operate freely, passing through Sanchuan while the garrison refuses to attack them. I have heard that correspondence has been exchanged between them, but I have not yet obtained proof, so I did not dare report it. Moreover, the Chancellor resides outside the palace and his power exceeds Your Majesty's." The Second Emperor believed this. He wished to investigate the Chancellor but feared the evidence might not hold. He therefore sent inspectors to examine whether the Governor of Sanchuan was in communication with the rebels. Li Si heard of the investigation.

The Second Emperor then ordered Zhao Gao to investigate and prosecute the Chancellor, charging that Li Si and his son You had conspired to rebel. Their entire clan and all their retainers were arrested. Zhao Gao tortured Li Si — over a thousand strokes of the rod — until the pain became unbearable and Li Si made a false confession. The reason Li Si did not simply die was that he trusted in his own eloquence and his record of service. He truly had no intent to rebel and hoped to be allowed to submit a memorial presenting his case, hoping the Second Emperor would come to his senses and pardon him. From prison, Li Si submitted a memorial:

"I served as Chancellor, governing the people, for more than thirty years. When I began, Qin's territory was narrow. In the late king's time, Qin extended no more than a thousand li and its army numbered only a few hundred thousand. I devoted my meager abilities, scrupulously following the laws. I secretly dispatched agents, providing them with gold and jade, to persuade the lords' courts. I secretly built up the army, refined the government, promoted warriors, and honored meritorious ministers with rich titles and stipends. In the end I coerced Han, weakened Wei, destroyed Yan and Zhao, leveled Qi and Chu, and finally unified the six states, capturing their kings and establishing Qin as ruler of All-Under-Heaven. This is my first crime. When the territory was still not broad enough, I drove the Hu and the Mo northward and pacified the Hundred Yue to the south, demonstrating Qin's strength. This is my second crime. I honored the great ministers and enriched their ranks and positions to bind them in loyalty. This is my third crime. I established the altars of soil and grain and maintained the ancestral temples to make manifest the ruler's virtue. This is my fourth crime. I reformed the weights and measures, standardized the measuring vessels and the script, and promulgated these throughout All-Under-Heaven to establish Qin's name. This is my fifth crime. I built the express highways and constructed places of scenic recreation to display the ruler's contentment. This is my sixth crime. I lightened punishments and reduced taxes to win the hearts of the people for the ruler, so that the masses would support him and never forget him even after death. This is my seventh crime. A minister such as I — my crimes have been sufficient for execution for a long time. It is only by the sovereign's grace, in allowing me to exhaust my abilities, that I have survived to this day. I beg Your Majesty to examine the matter!"

When the memorial was submitted, Zhao Gao had a clerk discard it without presenting it to the emperor, saying: "How can a prisoner submit memorials!"

Zhao Gao sent more than ten of his agents, disguised as imperial inspectors, court ushers, and palace attendants, to interrogate Li Si in rotation. Whenever Li Si told the truth, they had him beaten again. Later, the Second Emperor sent someone to verify Li Si's confession. By then Li Si assumed it was another of Zhao Gao's fakes and did not dare recant, confirming the confession. When the case was submitted, the Second Emperor was pleased, saying: "If not for Zhao Gao, I would nearly have been betrayed by the Chancellor."

In the seventh month of the Second Emperor's second year, Li Si was sentenced to the Five Punishments and condemned to be cut in half at the waist in the Xianyang marketplace. As Li Si was led from prison with his second son, also under arrest, he turned to his son and said: "I wish I could go with you once more, leading the yellow hound, out the east gate of Shangcai to chase the cunning hare — but how could that ever be?" Father and son wept together. Li Si's three clans were exterminated.

After Li Si's death, the Second Emperor appointed Zhao Gao as Chancellor of the Center. Every matter, great or small, was decided by Zhao Gao. Knowing his own power was immense, Zhao Gao tested the court by presenting a deer and calling it a horse. The Second Emperor asked his attendants: "Is that not a deer?" They all said: "It is a horse." The Second Emperor was alarmed, thinking he had lost his mind. He summoned the Grand Diviner to cast the oracle. The Grand Diviner said: "Your Majesty has not been sufficiently pure in your seasonal sacrifices and offerings to the ancestral spirits. You should observe a period of strict purification." The Second Emperor thereupon entered the Shanglin Park to undergo purification. But he spent each day hunting. A passerby entered the Shanglin Park, and the Second Emperor shot and killed him. Zhao Gao instructed his son-in-law Yan Le, the magistrate of Xianyang, to file a case charging that an unknown person had been murdered and the body moved to the Shanglin. Zhao Gao then advised the Second Emperor: "The Son of Heaven has killed an innocent person without cause. This violates the prohibition of the Lord on High. The spirits will no longer accept sacrifices, and Heaven will send down calamity. You must leave the palace and go to a distant residence to perform rites of aversion." The Second Emperor withdrew to the Wangyi Palace.

After three days, Zhao Gao forged an edict to the palace guards, ordering them to don white garments, take up arms, and face inward. He went in and announced to the Second Emperor: "A great rebel army from the east is approaching!" The Second Emperor climbed to a watchtower and saw the armed men. Terrified, Zhao Gao forced him to kill himself. Zhao Gao took the imperial seal and hung it from his own belt, but none of the officials or attendants would follow him. He ascended the throne steps, and three times the hall shook as if about to collapse. Zhao Gao realized that Heaven would not grant him the throne and the ministers would not accept him. He summoned a brother of the First Emperor and gave him the seal.

When Ziying took the throne, he was troubled by Zhao Gao. He feigned illness and refused to conduct business, and secretly conspired with the eunuch Han Tan and his own sons to kill Zhao Gao. When Zhao Gao came to inquire about his illness, Ziying summoned him inside and ordered Han Tan to stab him. His three clans were exterminated.

Ziying had been on the throne for three months when the Lord of Pei's army entered through the Wu Pass and reached Xianyang. Every minister and official defected and refused to resist. Ziying, with his wife and sons, tied cords around their necks and surrendered by the roadside at Zhidao. The Lord of Pei placed him in the custody of his officials. When the King of Xiang arrived, he beheaded Ziying. And so All-Under-Heaven was lost.

The Grand Historian comments: Li Si rose from the back alleys, traveled among the lords, entered the service of Qin, and exploited cracks and opportunities to assist the First Emperor in completing the imperial enterprise. As one of the Three Excellencies, he may be called honored and employed to the utmost. But Li Si understood where the six states were heading yet did not devote himself to enlightened governance to remedy his sovereign's deficiencies. Instead, he clung to the weight of his rank and stipends, fawned and made compromises, enforced harsh authority and cruel punishments, listened to Zhao Gao's treacherous counsel, and deposed the legitimate heir to install an inferior. By the time the lords had already revolted and Li Si wished to remonstrate — was it not too late? People all believe that Li Si was the epitome of loyalty who was subjected to the Five Punishments and died unjustly. But when you examine the root of the matter, it differs from the common view. Otherwise, Li Si's achievements would rank him alongside the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao.

The rat dwells where it chooses; a man, too, must choose his ground. Li Si devoted his intelligence and strength; his merit was established and his name achieved. He feasted at Xianyang, the highest a minister could rise. One man's deception altered the vessel of state. The nation was lost and he was executed — the beginning was the same, but the end was different.