淮陰侯列傳

Han Xin, the Marquis of Huaiyin, was a man of Huaiyin. When he was still a commoner, he was poor and had no notable conduct. He could not be selected for minor office, nor could he make a living in trade. He constantly depended on others for food, and most people detested him for it. He frequently ate at the home of the village head of Nanchang Pavilion in Xiaxiang, staying for months on end, until the village head's wife grew resentful and began cooking breakfast early, eating in bed before Han Xin arrived. When Han Xin came at the usual hour and found no meal prepared for him, he understood her meaning. Angry, he broke off relations and left for good.

Han Xin was fishing beneath the city wall, where a group of old women were rinsing silk. One of the women saw that he was hungry and gave him a meal. This continued for dozens of days until her work was finished. Han Xin was delighted and said to the washerwoman: "I will certainly repay you handsomely one day." The old woman said angrily: "A grown man who cannot feed himself! I fed you out of pity for a young gentleman — did I do it expecting repayment?"

Among the butchers' youths of Huaiyin, there was one who taunted Han Xin: "You may be tall and fond of wearing a sword, but inside you are a coward." He humiliated Han Xin before everyone, saying: "If you have the nerve to die, stab me. If you haven't the nerve, crawl between my legs." Han Xin stared at him for a long time, then bent down and crawled between the youth's legs on all fours. The whole marketplace laughed at Han Xin, thinking him a coward.

When Xiang Liang crossed the Huai River, Han Xin took up his sword and followed him, but remained at his headquarters without gaining any reputation. After Xiang Liang's defeat, Han Xin served under Xiang Yu, who made him a gentleman-attendant. He repeatedly offered stratagems to Xiang Yu, but Xiang Yu never adopted them. When the King of Han entered Shu, Han Xin deserted Chu and joined Han, but still won no recognition and was given the minor post of Grain Transport Officer. He was convicted of a crime and sentenced to death. Thirteen of his companions had already been beheaded, and it was about to be his turn, when he looked up and happened to see Lord Teng. He called out: "Does His Majesty not wish to win All-Under-Heaven? Why then does he behead brave men?" Lord Teng was struck by his words and impressed by his bearing, and released him. After conversing with Han Xin, Lord Teng was greatly pleased and recommended him to the king. The king appointed him Superintendent of Grain, but took no special notice of him.

Han Xin conversed frequently with Xiao He, and Xiao He came to regard him as extraordinary. When they reached Nanzheng, dozens of officers deserted along the road. Han Xin reckoned that Xiao He had already spoken to the king on his behalf several times, but the king would not employ him, so he too deserted. When Xiao He heard that Han Xin had fled, there was no time to inform the king — he chased after him personally. Someone told the king: "Chancellor Xiao has deserted." The king flew into a rage, as though he had lost both his right and left hands. After a day or two, Xiao He came to see the king. The king was both furious and relieved, and berated him: "You deserted — why?" Xiao He replied: "I would not dare desert. I was pursuing a deserter." The king asked: "Who were you pursuing?" "Han Xin." The king cursed again: "Dozens of officers have deserted and you pursued none of them. Pursuing Han Xin — you are lying." Xiao He said: "Those other officers are easy to replace. But someone like Han Xin is a man without equal in the realm. If Your Majesty is content to remain King of Hanzhong forever, then you have no need of Han Xin. But if you intend to contend for All-Under-Heaven, there is no one but Han Xin with whom you can plan this enterprise. It depends entirely on what Your Majesty decides." The king said: "I too wish to march east — how could I stay bottled up here forever?" Xiao He said: "If Your Majesty has decided to march east, and you employ Han Xin, he will stay. If you cannot employ him, he will leave in the end." The king said: "For your sake, I will make him a general." Xiao He said: "Even as a general, Han Xin will not stay." The king said: "Then I will make him Grand General." Xiao He said: "Excellent." The king then wanted to summon Han Xin and appoint him casually. Xiao He said: "Your Majesty has always been careless and discourteous. To appoint a Grand General as though calling a boy — this is exactly why Han Xin left. If Your Majesty truly wishes to appoint him, choose an auspicious day, fast and purify yourself, erect an altar, and perform the full ceremony — only then will it do." The king agreed. All the officers were delighted, each man thinking he would be the one named Grand General. When the Grand General was announced, it was Han Xin — and the entire army was astonished.

After the ceremony of appointment was complete, Han Xin took his seat in the place of honor. The king said: "The Chancellor has spoken of you many times. What strategy would the General teach me?" Han Xin thanked him, then asked: "The one who contends with you for supremacy as you march east — is that not Xiang Yu?" The King of Han said: "It is." Han Xin asked: "In Your Majesty's own estimation, in courage, ferocity, benevolence, and strength, how do you compare with Xiang Yu?" The King of Han was silent for a long while. "I am inferior," he said. Han Xin bowed twice and congratulated him: "I too believe Your Majesty is inferior. However, I once served Xiang Yu, so allow me to speak of his character. When Xiang Yu roars in fury, a thousand men freeze in terror — but he cannot delegate authority to capable generals. This is merely the courage of a common man. When Xiang Yu meets people, he is respectful and kind; his words are gentle and solicitous. When someone falls ill, he weeps and shares his food and drink. But when someone has won merit and deserves enfeoffment, he fingers the seal until it is worn smooth, unable to bring himself to hand it over. This is what is called 'the benevolence of a woman.' Though Xiang Yu has made himself hegemon of All-Under-Heaven and subjugated the lords, he did not occupy the strategic heartland of Guanzhong but established his capital at Pengcheng. He violated the Righteous Emperor's covenant and enfeoffed those he personally favored as kings — the lords resented this. When the lords saw Xiang Yu banish the Righteous Emperor to the south, they too drove out their own rulers and claimed the best territories for themselves. Wherever Xiang Yu's armies passed, nothing was left unravaged. The realm is full of grievances; the common people do not rally to him willingly but submit only through fear of his power. Though he is called hegemon in name, he has in truth lost the hearts of All-Under-Heaven. Therefore his strength can easily be turned to weakness. Now if Your Majesty can truly reverse his course — employ the brave men of the realm, what enemy cannot be destroyed? Enfeoff meritorious officers with cities and territories, and who will not submit? Lead a righteous army composed of soldiers who long to march east and go home, and what force will not scatter before you? Moreover, the three kings of Qin were formerly Qin generals who led Qin's sons and brothers for years — the number they killed and lost is beyond counting. They deceived their own troops into surrendering to the lords, and at Xin'an, Xiang Yu treacherously buried alive more than two hundred thousand surrendered Qin soldiers. Only Zhang Han, Sima Xin, and Dong Yi escaped. The fathers and elder brothers of Qin hate these three men to the marrow of their bones. Now Chu has forced these three men upon the Qin people as their kings, and the people of Qin feel no love for them. When Your Majesty entered through Wu Pass, you did not harm so much as a hair. You abolished the harsh laws of Qin and made a covenant with the people of Qin — the law of three articles only. Every person in Qin wished for Your Majesty to be their king. By the covenant of the lords, Your Majesty was to be King of Guanzhong, and every person in Guanzhong knows it. When Your Majesty was deprived of his rightful position and sent to Hanzhong, the people of Qin were all indignant. Now, if Your Majesty raises his army and marches east, the Three Qin can be conquered by sending a single dispatch." The King of Han was overjoyed and felt he had found Han Xin too late. He then followed Han Xin's plan and deployed his generals for the campaign.

In the eighth month, the King of Han raised his army and marched east through Chencang, conquering the Three Qin. In the second year of Han, he came out of the passes and took Wei and Henan; the kings of Han and Yin both surrendered. He allied with Qi and Zhao to strike Chu together. In the fourth month they reached Pengcheng, but the Han army was defeated and scattered in retreat. Han Xin rallied the troops and rejoined the King of Han at Xingyang, then defeated Chu between Jing and Suo, preventing the Chu forces from advancing west.

After Han's defeat at Pengcheng, the King of Sai, Xin, and the King of Di, Yi, deserted Han and surrendered to Chu. Qi and Zhao also turned against Han and came to terms with Chu. In the sixth month, King Bao of Wei asked leave to visit his ailing family. Upon reaching his territory, he immediately severed the Yellow River crossing and revolted against Han, concluding an alliance with Chu. The King of Han sent Li Yiji to persuade Bao, without success. In the eighth month, he appointed Han Xin as Left Chancellor and ordered him to attack Wei. The King of Wei massed his troops at Puban and blocked the Linjin crossing. Han Xin deployed decoy forces, lining up boats as if to cross at Linjin, while sending his real army from Xiayang, crossing the river on improvised wooden-vessel rafts to attack Anyi by surprise. King Bao of Wei was shocked and led his troops to meet Han Xin, but Han Xin captured him and annexed Wei as the Hedong Commandery. The King of Han then dispatched Zhang Er to join Han Xin, and they led their troops east and north to strike Zhao and Dai. In the intercalary ninth month, they destroyed the army of Dai and captured Xia Yue at Eyu. Whenever Han Xin conquered a territory, the King of Han would send someone to take the best troops and bring them to Xingyang to resist Chu.

With an army of only tens of thousands, Han Xin and Zhang Er prepared to march east through the Jingxing Pass to attack Zhao. The King of Zhao and Lord Cheng'an, Chen Yu, heard that Han was coming to attack them and massed their troops at the mouth of Jingxing — two hundred thousand by their own claim. The Lord of Guangwu, Li Zuoche, advised Lord Cheng'an: "I hear that the Han general Han Xin crossed the Western River, captured the King of Wei, seized Xia Yue, and has freshly shed blood at Eyu. Now with Zhang Er to assist him, he plans to take Zhao. He rides the momentum of victory and fights far from his base — his edge cannot be withstood. I have heard that when provisions are carted a thousand li, the soldiers wear the look of hunger; when they must gather firewood before they cook, the army never eats its fill. The road through Jingxing is so narrow that chariots cannot ride abreast and cavalry cannot form ranks. Marching hundreds of li in single file, their supply train must lag behind. Grant me thirty thousand troops for an unorthodox flanking force. I will take a side road and cut off their baggage. You, my lord, dig deep trenches and raise high ramparts, hold your position and refuse battle. They will be unable to advance to fight, unable to retreat and return home. My flanking force will cut them off from behind, and there will be nothing for them to forage in the countryside. Within ten days, the heads of both their generals can be delivered to your command tent. I beg my lord to consider this plan carefully. If you do not, you will surely be captured by those two." But Lord Cheng'an was a Confucian who constantly insisted that a righteous army does not employ deceit or unorthodox stratagems. He said: "I have heard that the art of war says: surround when you outnumber them ten to one; give battle when you outnumber them two to one. Han Xin's army is called tens of thousands but is in truth no more than several thousand. Having marched a thousand li to attack us, they must be utterly exhausted. If we avoid them and refuse to fight, and later a larger force comes, how will we face it? The lords will say we are cowards and come to attack us without fear." He rejected the Lord of Guangwu's strategy.

Han Xin sent scouts to verify this, and when they returned with the report that the plan had been rejected, he was overjoyed. Only then did he dare lead his army forward. He halted thirty li short of the Jingxing pass and made camp. At midnight, he issued orders to march and selected two thousand light cavalry, each carrying a red Han banner. He sent them by a hidden trail to conceal themselves in the hills overlooking the Zhao camp, with these instructions: "When Zhao sees us retreating, they will empty their ramparts and chase us. Rush into the Zhao camp, tear down their banners, and plant these red Han banners." He then ordered his officers to distribute a light meal, saying: "Today we shall dine after defeating Zhao!" None of the officers believed him; they answered with feigned assent. Han Xin told his staff: "Zhao has already occupied the advantageous position and fortified it. Until they see my grand general's flags and drums, they will not commit to attacking our vanguard — they will fear that we may turn back at the difficult terrain." Han Xin then sent ten thousand men ahead to deploy with their backs to the river. The Zhao army saw this and laughed.

At dawn, Han Xin raised the grand general's flags and drums and marched out of the Jingxing pass with drums beating. Zhao opened their ramparts and attacked. A fierce battle raged for a long time. Then Han Xin and Zhang Er made a show of abandoning their flags and drums and fled to the army by the river. The riverside force opened its ranks to admit them, and the fighting resumed with desperate intensity. The Zhao forces, as expected, poured out of their ramparts to seize the Han flags and drums and pursue Han Xin and Zhang Er. But once Han Xin and Zhang Er reached the riverside army, every soldier fought to the death, and they could not be broken. The two thousand cavalry Han Xin had sent waited until Zhao emptied their fortifications in pursuit of plunder, then galloped into the Zhao camp, tore down every Zhao banner, and planted two thousand red Han flags. When the Zhao troops could not overcome Han Xin's forces and tried to return to their camp, they saw nothing but red Han flags everywhere and were seized with panic, believing that Han had already captured the Zhao king and all his generals. The army fell into chaos and fled. Although the Zhao officers cut down deserters, they could not restore order. The Han forces then attacked from both sides, utterly crushing the Zhao army. They killed Lord Cheng'an at the Si River and captured King Xie of Zhao.

Han Xin ordered that no one in the army was to kill the Lord of Guangwu — anyone who captured him alive would receive a reward of a thousand pieces of gold. Presently someone brought the Lord of Guangwu bound before him. Han Xin personally untied his bonds, seated him in the place of honor facing east, and sat facing west in the position of a student, treating him as his teacher.

When the officers had presented their tallies of heads and prisoners and finished their congratulations, they asked Han Xin: "The art of war says to keep the hills and high ground to the right and rear, and water and marshes to the front and left. Yet the General ordered us to form up with our backs to the river, and said we would dine after defeating Zhao. We did not believe it. Yet somehow we won. What technique was this?" Han Xin replied: "This is in the art of war — you gentlemen simply did not notice it. Does the art of war not say, 'Place them in a death ground and they will live; put them in a ground of extinction and they will survive'? Moreover, I have not had the chance to train and bond with these soldiers over time. This is what they call 'driving marketplace rabble into battle.' Under such circumstances, there was no choice but to place them in a death ground so that each man would fight for his own survival. Had I given them a way out, they would all have fled — how could I have made any use of them?" All the officers submitted, saying: "Brilliant. This is beyond us."

Han Xin then asked the Lord of Guangwu: "I wish to attack Yan to the north and campaign against Qi to the east. How should I proceed to succeed?" The Lord of Guangwu demurred: "I have heard that the general of a defeated army should not speak of courage, and the minister of a ruined state should not plan for survival. I am a captive from a defeated, ruined cause — how can I weigh in on great affairs?" Han Xin said: "I have heard that Baili Xi lived in Yu and Yu perished, then went to Qin and Qin rose to supremacy. It was not that he was stupid in Yu and wise in Qin — it was a matter of whether his advice was used or rejected. Had Lord Cheng'an listened to your strategy, someone like me would already have been captured. It is precisely because he did not use you that I am here to serve you now." He pressed further: "I entrust my plans to you with an open heart. I beg you not to refuse." The Lord of Guangwu said: "I have heard that a wise man, after a thousand deliberations, will make at least one mistake; a fool, after a thousand deliberations, will hit upon at least one good idea. Therefore it is said, 'A sage considers even a madman's words.' I fear my counsel may not be worth much, but I offer my foolish loyalty. Lord Cheng'an had a strategy that should have won a hundred battles, yet he lost it in a single morning — his army was crushed below Hao and he died at the Si River. Now the General has crossed the Western River, captured the King of Wei, seized Xia Yue at Eyu, taken Jingxing in a single stroke, and in less than a morning destroyed Zhao's two hundred thousand. You have killed Lord Cheng'an. Your name is heard within the four seas and your might shakes All-Under-Heaven. Every farmer has set down his plow, put on his finest clothes, eaten his fill, and waits with pricked ears for your command. This is the General's strength. But your troops are weary and exhausted, and in truth difficult to employ further. If the General now leads his spent army and batters it against the strong walls of Yan, you may fight but will likely be unable to take them. As your situation becomes apparent and your momentum fades, with each passing day your supplies will dwindle. If even weak Yan will not submit, Qi will certainly fortify its borders against you. With Yan and Qi deadlocked against you, the balance between Liu and Xiang will remain undecided. This is the General's weakness. In my foolish opinion, that course would be a mistake. The skillful commander does not attack his enemy's strengths with his own weaknesses, but attacks the enemy's weaknesses with his own strengths." Han Xin asked: "Then what course should I take?" The Lord of Guangwu replied: "The best plan for the General now is to rest the army and hold Zhao in peace, caring for its orphans and widows. Within a hundred li, let oxen and wine arrive daily to feast the soldiers. Then face the army north toward the road to Yan and send an eloquent envoy with a brief letter displaying your strengths to Yan. Yan will not dare refuse submission. Once Yan has submitted, send a herald east to announce it to Qi, and Qi will bend with the wind and submit. Even a brilliant strategist would not know how to plan for Qi's defense. In this way, all affairs under Heaven can be settled. There is a principle in warfare: 'First the reputation, then the reality.' This is what it means." Han Xin said: "Excellent." He followed this strategy and dispatched an envoy to Yan. Yan bent with the wind and submitted. He then sent a messenger to report to the King of Han, requesting that Zhang Er be installed as King of Zhao to pacify the territory. The King of Han approved, and Zhang Er was installed as King of Zhao.

Chu repeatedly sent raiding forces across the river to attack Zhao. King Er of Zhao and Han Xin moved back and forth to defend Zhao, pacifying its cities and towns along the way, and dispatching troops to join the King of Han. Meanwhile Chu was pressing the siege of the King of Han at Xingyang. The King of Han broke out southward and traveled between Wan and Ye, where he recruited Qing Bu. He then fled into Chenggao, but Chu besieged him there again. In the sixth month, the King of Han escaped Chenggao, crossed the Yellow River eastward with only Lord Teng for company, and joined Zhang Er's army at Xiuwu. Upon arriving, he spent the night at a relay station. At dawn, he identified himself as a Han envoy, galloped into the Zhao camp, and — while Zhang Er and Han Xin were still asleep — entered their sleeping quarters and seized their seals and tallies of command. He then summoned the generals and reassigned them all. When Han Xin and Zhang Er awoke and learned that the King of Han had come, they were dumbfounded. The King of Han took both men's armies, ordered Zhang Er to hold Zhao, and appointed Han Xin as Chancellor of State to gather the remaining Zhao troops and attack Qi.

Han Xin led his army east. Before crossing the Pingyuan crossing, he heard that the King of Han had already sent Li Yiji as envoy to persuade Qi to surrender, and he wanted to halt. But the persuader Kuai Tong of Fanyang said to him: "The General received orders to attack Qi, yet the King of Han has separately sent a secret envoy to bring Qi over. Was there an order to halt the General? How can you justify stopping? Besides, Li Yiji is a single scholar who leaned on his carriage rail and wagged his three-inch tongue to bring over seventy-odd cities of Qi. The General, commanding tens of thousands, has taken over a year to conquer fifty-odd cities of Zhao. After years as a general, are you really inferior in achievement to a single petty Confucian?" Han Xin agreed and followed his advice, crossing the river. Qi had already listened to Li Yiji and was relaxing with wine, having dismantled its defenses against Han. Han Xin struck the Qi army at Lixia by surprise and advanced to Linzi. King Tian Guang of Qi, concluding that Li Yiji had betrayed him, had him boiled alive and fled to Gaomi, sending envoys to Chu for help. Han Xin took Linzi and pursued Guang eastward to the west of Gaomi. Chu sent the general Long Ju with an army they claimed numbered two hundred thousand to rescue Qi.

King Guang and Long Ju combined forces to face Han Xin, but before they engaged, someone advised Long Ju: "The Han troops have fought their way far from home and are spent — their edge is irresistible, but Qi and Chu, fighting on their own ground, have troops that scatter easily. It would be better to fortify deeply and have the King of Qi send trusted ministers to call back the cities that have fallen. When those cities hear that their king survives and that Chu has come to the rescue, they will surely turn against Han. The Han army, two thousand li from home, with every Qi city revolting against it, will have no way to obtain food and will surrender without a battle." Long Ju said: "I have always known what kind of man Han Xin is — easy to deal with. Besides, if I rescue Qi without fighting and they surrender on their own, what merit do I earn? If I fight and win, half of Qi can be mine. Why hold back?" He joined battle, and the two armies faced each other across the Wei River. That night, Han Xin ordered his men to fill more than ten thousand sacks with sand and dam the upper course of the river. He then led half his force across and attacked Long Ju, feigning defeat and retreating. Long Ju was delighted: "I always knew Han Xin was a coward." He pursued Han Xin across the river. Han Xin then had his men break the dam. The water came crashing down. The greater part of Long Ju's army could not cross. Han Xin struck hard and killed Long Ju. Long Ju's forces east of the river scattered and fled. King Guang of Qi escaped. Han Xin pursued the routed army northward to Chengyang, capturing all the Chu soldiers.

In the fourth year of Han, Han Xin brought all of Qi to submission. He sent a messenger to tell the King of Han: "Qi is a land of deception and constant rebellion. It borders Chu to the south. Unless an acting king is installed to hold it, the situation will not stabilize. I request to be made acting king as a matter of expedience." At that moment, Chu was pressing its siege of the King of Han at Xingyang. When Han Xin's messenger arrived and the king opened the letter, he flew into a rage and cursed: "I am trapped here, looking day and night for you to come to my aid, and instead you want to make yourself king!" Zhang Liang and Chen Ping stepped on the King of Han's foot and whispered in his ear: "Han's situation is desperate — can you actually forbid Han Xin from becoming king? Better to go along with it and treat him well, so he holds his territory for us. Otherwise, there will be trouble." The King of Han caught on. He cursed again, this time saying: "When a real man has conquered the lords, he should be a real king — why settle for 'acting'?" He then sent Zhang Liang to install Han Xin as King of Qi and summoned his troops to attack Chu.

After Chu lost Long Ju, Xiang Yu was alarmed. He sent Wu She of Xuyi to persuade the King of Qi, Han Xin: "All-Under-Heaven suffered long under Qin, and everyone joined forces to destroy it. After Qin fell, territory was divided according to merit and each man was made king, so the soldiers could rest. Now the King of Han raises armies again and marches east, seizing others' territories — he broke the Three Qin, led his troops out of the passes, and collected all the lords' soldiers to march east and attack Chu. He will not stop until he has swallowed All-Under-Heaven whole — his greed is insatiable. Moreover, the King of Han cannot be trusted. He has been in Xiang Yu's grasp multiple times, and Xiang Yu took pity and let him live. Yet the moment he escaped, he broke his word and attacked Xiang Yu again. Such a man cannot be trusted. Now, though you believe yourself close to the King of Han and fight with all your strength on his behalf, in the end you will be seized by him. The only reason you have survived this long is that Xiang Yu still exists. The fate of both kings now rests with you. If you lean right, the King of Han wins; if you lean left, Xiang Yu wins. If Xiang Yu falls today, you are next. You have ties with Xiang Yu — why not turn against Han, ally with Chu, and divide All-Under-Heaven three ways? To let this moment pass and commit yourself to Han against Chu — is this really what a wise man would do?" Han Xin declined: "When I served Xiang Yu, my rank was no higher than gentleman-attendant, my position no higher than halberd-bearer. My advice was not heeded, my plans were not used. That is why I left Chu for Han. The King of Han gave me the seal of Supreme General, entrusted me with tens of thousands of troops, took off his own coat to clothe me, and pushed his own food before me to feed me. He listens to my words and employs my plans — that is how I have come to this. A man who trusts me so deeply — to betray him would be inauspicious. I will not change my mind, even in death. Please convey my regards to Xiang Yu."

After Wu She left, Kuai Tong, a man of Qi, recognized that the fate of All-Under-Heaven rested with Han Xin and wished to move him with an extraordinary plan. He approached Han Xin through the art of physiognomy: "I once studied the art of reading faces." Han Xin asked: "How do you read people?" He answered: "Nobility and baseness lie in the bones; joy and sorrow lie in the complexion; success and failure lie in decisiveness. Cross-reference these three, and you will never be wrong." Han Xin said: "Very well. What do you see in me?" Kuai Tong replied: "I request a private audience." Han Xin said: "My attendants have withdrawn." Kuai Tong said: "Reading your face, you will rise no higher than a marquis — and even that is precarious. But reading your back, your nobility is beyond words." Han Xin asked: "What do you mean?" Kuai Tong said: "When the rebellion first began, heroes and bold men proclaimed themselves and called the realm to arms. Warriors gathered like clouds and mist, clustered like fish scales, converging like sparks in a storm. At that time, the only concern was destroying Qin. Now Chu and Han are locked in struggle, causing innocent people to spill their liver and gall on the ground and fathers and sons to leave their bones exposed in the open fields beyond counting. The men of Chu rose from Pengcheng, fought their way pursuing the enemy north to Xingyang, riding their momentum to sweep all before them, their might shaking All-Under-Heaven. Yet their army has been pinned between Jing and Suo, pressed against the western mountains, unable to advance — for three years now. The King of Han commands hundreds of thousands and holds the line at Gong and Luo, behind the barrier of mountains and rivers, fighting several battles a day without gaining an inch of ground, suffering defeat after defeat — routed at Xingyang, beaten at Chenggao, fleeing to the region between Wan and Ye. This is what they call 'wisdom and courage both exhausted.' Their keen edge has been blunted at the passes, their provisions depleted in the treasury. The common people are worn out and resentful, drifting without direction. In my assessment, unless a sage arises, no one can end the calamity of All-Under-Heaven. The lives of both rulers now hang upon you. If you support Han, Han wins. If you go with Chu, Chu wins. I would lay bare my heart and liver and offer my foolish plan, but I fear you will not use it. If you would truly listen: the best course is to preserve both sides and divide All-Under-Heaven in three, standing like the three legs of a tripod — then no one will dare make the first move. With your sagacity, your armored host, your hold on mighty Qi, with Yan and Zhao at your back, striking into the empty ground behind them and seizing their rear — and, following the people's desire, marching west to plead the people's cause — then All-Under-Heaven will run toward you like the wind and echo your call. Who would dare resist? Carve up the great and weaken the strong, install the lords as you see fit. Once the lords are installed, All-Under-Heaven will obey and give its allegiance to Qi. Settled upon the foundation of Qi, with the lands of the Jiao and Si rivers, embracing the lords with virtue, bowing and yielding with deep humility — then the kings of All-Under-Heaven will lead one another to pay court at Qi. I have heard that when Heaven gives and you do not take, you will be punished for it; when the moment comes and you do not act, you will suffer for it. I beg you to think carefully."

Han Xin said: "The King of Han has treated me with great generosity. He carried me in his own carriage, clothed me in his own robes, fed me from his own plate. I have heard that one who rides another's carriage should share his burdens, one who wears another's clothes should share his worries, and one who eats another's food should serve his cause unto death. How can I turn toward profit and betray what is right?" Kuai Tong said: "You believe yourself on good terms with the King of Han and wish to build an enterprise for ten thousand generations — but I fear you are mistaken. When the King of Changshan and Lord Cheng'an were commoners, they swore to die for each other. Later they quarreled over the affair of Zhang Yan and Chen Ze, and the two became enemies. The King of Changshan turned against Xiang Yu, fled with Xiang Ying's head, and escaped to the King of Han. The King of Han lent him troops and marched east, killing Lord Cheng'an south of the Si River — head and feet in different places — and in the end both became a laughingstock for All-Under-Heaven. These two men's friendship was as close as any in the realm. Yet in the end, one destroyed the other. Why? Because trouble is born from excessive desire and the human heart is unfathomable. Your bond with the King of Han cannot possibly be deeper than theirs was, and the stakes are far higher than their petty dispute. Therefore I believe you are mistaken to think the King of Han will never turn against you. Minister Zhong and Fan Li saved the doomed state of Yue and made Goujian a hegemon — they achieved great merit and lasting fame, yet one was put to death and the other fled. 'When the wild game is gone, the hunting dogs are cooked.' In terms of friendship, yours falls short of Zhang Er and Lord Cheng'an. In terms of loyal service, you have done no more than Minister Zhong and Fan Li did for Goujian. These two cases should give you pause. Moreover, I have heard that one whose courage and strategy overawe the sovereign is in danger, and one whose merit overshadows All-Under-Heaven will not be rewarded. Let me catalogue your achievements: you crossed the Western River and captured the King of Wei, seized Xia Yue, led your army through Jingxing, killed Lord Cheng'an, overran Zhao, coerced Yan, conquered Qi, smashed two hundred thousand of Chu's troops to the south, killed Long Ju to the east, and reported your victories to the west. Your merit has no equal under Heaven, your strategy appears once in a generation. Now you carry a reputation that terrifies the sovereign and hold achievements that cannot be rewarded. If you go to Chu, the men of Chu will not trust you. If you return to Han, the men of Han will tremble with fear. Where do you intend to go? When a subject holds a position that overawes the sovereign and a fame that towers over All-Under-Heaven — I am deeply worried for you." Han Xin said: "Please say no more, sir. I will consider it."

Some days later, Kuai Tong tried again: "Listening is the sentinel of affairs; planning is the pivot of action. One who listens wrongly and plans badly yet enjoys lasting security is rare indeed. One whose listening never errs cannot be confused by words; one whose planning never misses can not be distracted by rhetoric. He who follows the servant's drudgery loses the authority of ten thousand chariots; he who clings to a petty salary forfeits the seat of minister and chancellor. The wise are distinguished by their decisiveness; doubt is the bane of all enterprise. To calculate petty gains and lose sight of the grand scheme, to know what is right but lack the courage to act — this is the root of calamity in a hundred affairs. Therefore it is said: 'The hesitation of a fierce tiger is no match for the sting of a wasp; the prancing of a thoroughbred is no match for the steady trot of a nag; the vacillation of a Meng Ben is no match for the certainty of an ordinary man; the wisdom of a Shun or Yu, mumbled but never spoken, is no match for the gestures of a deaf-mute.' These sayings all teach the same thing: what matters is the ability to act. Achievement is hard to build and easy to destroy; the right moment is hard to seize and easy to lose. Time — ah, time! — does not come again. I beg you to think it through." Han Xin wavered but could not bring himself to betray Han. He also convinced himself that his merit was so great that the King of Han would never take Qi away from him. He declined Kuai Tong's advice. Kuai Tong, his counsel rejected, feigned madness and became a shaman.

When the King of Han was trapped at Guling, he used Zhang Liang's stratagem to summon the King of Qi, Han Xin, who then brought his army to join the decisive battle at Gaixia. After Xiang Yu was destroyed, the Emperor seized Han Xin's army by surprise. In the first month of the fifth year of Han, Han Xin was transferred from King of Qi to King of Chu, with his capital at Xiapi.

Upon reaching his kingdom, Han Xin summoned the washerwoman who had fed him and rewarded her with a thousand pieces of gold. He summoned the village head of Nanchang Pavilion in Xiaxiang and gave him a hundred copper coins, saying: "You are a small man. Your generosity could not last." He summoned the young butcher who had made him crawl between his legs and appointed him Lieutenant of Chu. He told his generals and ministers: "This man is brave. When he humiliated me, could I not have killed him? But killing him would have won me no renown, so I endured it to reach where I am today."

Zhong Limei, a fugitive general of Xiang Yu's, had his family home at Yilu and had long been on good terms with Han Xin. After Xiang Yu's death, he fled to Han Xin for refuge. The Emperor bore a grudge against Zhong Limei and, learning he was in Chu, ordered Chu to arrest him. When Han Xin first arrived in his kingdom, he toured the counties and cities with a military escort wherever he went. In the sixth year of Han, someone submitted a memorial accusing King Xin of Chu of plotting rebellion. The Emperor, using Chen Ping's stratagem, announced an imperial tour to meet the lords, saying he would "visit the marshes of Yunmeng" in the south — but in truth intended to surprise Han Xin. Han Xin did not know this. As the Emperor approached Chu, Han Xin considered raising troops in revolt, but judged himself guiltless and thought of going to present himself — yet feared being seized. Someone advised him: "Kill Zhong Limei and present yourself to the Emperor. The Emperor will surely be pleased, and you will have nothing to fear." Han Xin went to consult with Zhong Limei. Zhong Limei said: "The reason Han has not attacked and seized Chu is that I am here with you. If you intend to arrest me to ingratiate yourself with Han, I will die today, but you will follow me soon after." He cursed Han Xin: "You are no man of honor!" And cut his own throat. Han Xin took his head and presented himself to the Emperor at Chen. The Emperor ordered warriors to bind Han Xin and load him into a trailing carriage. Han Xin said: "It is just as people say: 'When the cunning hares are dead, the good hounds are cooked; when the high-flying birds are gone, the good bows are put away; when the enemy state is destroyed, the strategist perishes.' All-Under-Heaven is settled — of course I was meant to be cooked!" The Emperor said: "Someone has accused you of rebellion." He had Han Xin shackled and transported him to Luoyang, where he pardoned his offense and demoted him to Marquis of Huaiyin.

Han Xin knew that the Emperor feared and resented his abilities, so he constantly feigned illness and neither attended court nor accompanied the Emperor. From this point on, Han Xin nursed his grievances day and night. He was perpetually resentful and felt ashamed to be ranked alongside men like the Marquis of Jiang and the Marquis of Guan. Once, Han Xin visited General Fan Kuai. Fan Kuai knelt, bowed, and escorted him in and out, addressing him as "Your Majesty" and saying: "That Your Majesty deigns to visit this humble servant!" When Han Xin emerged, he laughed: "So it has come to this — I keep company with the likes of Fan Kuai!"

The Emperor once chatted with Han Xin about the abilities of the various generals, ranking each one. He asked: "How many troops could someone like me command?" Han Xin replied: "Your Majesty could command no more than a hundred thousand." The Emperor asked: "And you?" Han Xin said: "For me, the more the better." The Emperor laughed: "The more the better — then why were you captured by me?" Han Xin replied: "Your Majesty cannot command soldiers, but you are skilled at commanding generals. This is why I was captured by Your Majesty. Moreover, Your Majesty's power is given by Heaven, not something human effort can match."

When Chen Xi was appointed Governor of Julu and came to take his leave of the Marquis of Huaiyin, Han Xin took his hand, dismissed his attendants, and walked with him in the courtyard. Looking up at the sky, he sighed: "Can I speak freely with you? There is something I wish to say." Chen Xi said: "I await the General's command." The Marquis of Huaiyin said: "The territory you govern is where the empire's finest troops are stationed. And you are the Emperor's trusted favorite. If someone accuses you of revolt, the Emperor will at first not believe it. If the accusation comes a second time, he will begin to doubt. If it comes a third time, he will be furious and lead his own army against you. I will raise an insurrection from within the capital on your behalf, and All-Under-Heaven can be ours." Chen Xi, who had long known Han Xin's abilities, believed him and said: "I shall respectfully follow your instruction!"

In the tenth year of Han, Chen Xi revolted as expected. The Emperor personally led the campaign against him. Han Xin claimed illness and did not accompany him. He secretly sent a messenger to Chen Xi, saying: "Raise your troops now — I will support you from within the capital." Han Xin then plotted with his household retainers to forge an imperial decree releasing the convicts and government slaves by night, intending to mobilize them for an attack on Empress Lü and the Crown Prince. The arrangements were complete, and he waited for word from Chen Xi. But one of his retainers had offended him, and Han Xin had imprisoned the man and intended to kill him. The retainer's younger brother submitted a report to Empress Lü, revealing Han Xin's plot. Empress Lü wished to summon him but feared his confederates would not cooperate. She conferred with Chancellor Xiao He and devised a scheme: they sent someone pretending to come from the Emperor's camp, announcing that Chen Xi had been captured and killed and that all the lords and ministers were gathering to offer congratulations. The Chancellor deceived Han Xin, saying: "Though you are ill, you must come and offer your congratulations." When Han Xin entered, Empress Lü had warriors seize him and beheaded him in the bell chamber of the Changle Palace. As he was about to die, Han Xin said: "I regret not following Kuai Tong's plan. To be deceived by a woman and a child — was this not fate!" His clan was exterminated to the third degree.

When the Emperor returned from the campaign against Chen Xi's forces and learned that Han Xin was dead, he was both pleased and pitied him. He asked: "What did Han Xin say before he died?" Empress Lü said: "He said he regretted not following Kuai Tong's plan." The Emperor said: "That is the rhetorician from Qi." He issued a decree to arrest Kuai Tong in Qi. When Kuai Tong was brought before him, the Emperor asked: "Did you teach the Marquis of Huaiyin to rebel?" Kuai Tong replied: "Yes, I did advise him. The wretch did not follow my strategy, and so brought ruin on himself. Had that wretch used my plan, how could Your Majesty have destroyed him?" The Emperor was furious: "Boil him!" Kuai Tong cried: "How unjust to be boiled!" The Emperor said: "You taught Han Xin to rebel — what injustice?" Kuai Tong replied: "When Qin's bonds snapped and its cords went slack, the lands east of the mountains erupted in chaos. Men of different surnames rose up together, heroes gathered like crows. Qin lost its deer, and All-Under-Heaven chased it — the man of greatest talent and swiftest feet caught it first. The Robber Zhi's dog barked at Yao — not because Yao was not benevolent, but because a dog barks at anyone who is not its master. At that time, I knew only Han Xin — I did not know Your Majesty. Moreover, there were many in All-Under-Heaven who sharpened their blades and wished to do what Your Majesty did — they simply lacked the ability. Are you going to boil all of them too?" The Emperor said: "Let him go." And pardoned Kuai Tong.

The Grand Historian remarks: When I visited Huaiyin, the people of Huaiyin told me that even when Han Xin was a commoner, his ambitions were different from ordinary men. When his mother died, he was too poor to afford a burial, yet he surveyed the area and chose a high, open site, with room for ten thousand households around it. I visited his mother's grave myself, and it was indeed so. Had Han Xin learned the way of humility and deference, had he not boasted of his achievements or flaunted his abilities, then his contributions to the Han dynasty might have been compared to those of the Duke of Zhou, the Duke of Shao, and the Grand Duke — and his descendants would have received sacrificial offerings for generations. Instead, he neglected this path. Once All-Under-Heaven was settled, he plotted rebellion, and his clan was exterminated. Was this not fitting?

For sovereign and minister to be as one — this has been difficult since antiquity. The Chancellor's deep recommendation, the strategy, the altar of investiture. Sinking sandbags, breaking the dam; planting banners, sharing the meal. When he went to Han, Han grew powerful; had he returned to Chu, Chu would have found peace. He refused the three-way partition; the feigned tour is cause for sighs.